and milk and smoked with the shells of the crab, etc.
Thus treated the trees will put forth fresh sprouts.
205. If the trees are scorched with fire the whole tree
should be smeared with mud from the lotus creeper and
then should be watered with kunapa mixture. Then its
branches grow up to the sky.
206. When anointed with vidari, sugar, nagajivha (red
arsenic), and sesame mixed together and when
sprinkled with milk-water, trees struck with lightning
put forth healthy sprouts.
207. Trees which are dried up due to heat caused by
fire are cured when a mixture of sugar, sesame, and milk
is used for watering and anointing them and when they
are smeared all round by the mud from the bottom of a
lotus plant.
208. If dried due to bad soil, the original soil from the
root should be removed and it should be replaced by
healthy soil and milk-water should be sprinkled over
it.
209. If the drying is due to the lack of water, the trees
should be watered with milk-water and properly
fomented by the smoke of crab shells.
210. The wounds of the trees are healed by the treatment
of anointing with the paste of the bark of nyagrodha and
udumbara, cow dung, honey, and ghee.
211. The oozing can be cured by the (above stated) paste
and by covering the part with the barks of dhava,
sriparnika, syama, vetasa, and arjuna.
212. Diseases caused by wrong treatment can be
conquered by sprinkling the mixture of water and milk
and also by applying a paste of vidanga mixed with thick
mud.
213. Jaundice can be brought under control only in
weeks by sprinkling water mixed with the powder of
barley and wheat added to honey and milk.
214. Non-productive trees bear fruits and flowers to
one's complete satisfaction when they are fed with milk
and kunapa water.
215. Unproductive trees fill the quarters with branches
covered with flowers and fruits without fail if treated
with cold mixture (?) of sesame, barley, kulattha, green
gram, and black gram.
216–217. Sesame and the dung of the goat and sheep
each measuring one adhaka (256 handfuls), barley
measuring one prastha (64 handfuls), water measuring
one drona (1024 handfuls), and corresponding quantity
of beef if allowed to set for seven nights and then used
for watering, the trees put forth flowers and fruits.
218. They produce fruits also if watered with the thick
mixture of the flesh of tiger, leopard, and fox and with
milk of elephant and buffalo.
219. Tender plants suffering from excess watering
should be scratched with nails, uprooted, and every root
should be smeared with the mixture of honey and
vidanga and then should be watered.
220. Vegetables of cucumber types get cured of diseases
when smoked around by the bones of cow and dog
mixed with excreta of cat.
221. Very tender plants should not be exposed to
excessive smoking. Excessive smearing, although gentle,
also should be avoided by the wise.
222. Plants which are not cured by any one of the
various above-stated remedies should be transplanted
at other special sites.
55

Horticultural wonders

223–226. Several special processes with reference to the
plants will be described hereunder. They are: bearing
flowers and fruits round the year; bearing flowers and
fruits out of season; producing fragrance; changing the
tastes; changing the colors; changing the flowers;
changing the fruits; changing the fragrance; arresting
of fragrance; producing flowers on (non-flowering ?)
creepers; transforming trees into a creeper; dwarfing the
trees; mixing; longevity of ripeness; non-ripening;
longevity of crop; destruction and quick rejuvenation;
quick production of fruits; increasing the size of fruits
and flowers at the very appearance; transformation into
another species (?); and so on.
227. A healthy seed of a properly ripened mango
(makanda) should be soaked in the blood of a tortoise
and a hare and then should be dried in the direct heat
of the sun. After a month it should be planted in a pit,
previously prepared as per the method described before
(verses 67 and 68).
228. Thereafter it should be showered with the milk of
a she-goat. Then it blossoms into a tree with thousands
of branches and produces lovely flowers and fruits
round the year. This is no wonder.
229. Trees watered at the root with buttermilk,
sugarcane juice mixed with the powder of beef, vidanga,
and oil cake definitely produce beautiful flowers and
fruits out of season for a period of one month.
230–231. Trees produce flowers and fruits out of season
undoubtedly if the following procedure is followed:
Varahi, jira (cumin seed) and sugarcane juice should be
kept for a month in a pot containing ghee prepared in
the moonlight and when the mixture is well formed,
roots of the trees should be smeared with it, and the
basin should be filled with mud. Then sugarcane juice
should be profusely sprinkled and the trees should be
smoked with honey and kunapa.
232. An ordinary mango tree gets the good quality of a
high class mango tree and puts forth fragrant blossom
attracting the bees if it is smeared with the thick paste
of jambu, coral, and the roots of khas and then sprinkled
with the water from the same paste.
233. If mud, scented with buds of asoka, etc. is filled at
the root, trees get a very attractive and strong fragrance.
234. Kusmanda, vartaka, patolaka, etc. produced from
healthy seeds cultivated with marrow of a female boar
and also nourished with the sprinkling by the same
marrow mixed in water always produce seedless fruits.
235. A ball made out of the mixture of the flowers of
madhuka, honey from lotuses, crystalline sugar, and yasti
kept in a hole made at the root of a tree, produces long
lasting fruits (on the tree).
236. A ball made out of the mixture of asvaghna, langali,
the big and small brhati kept in the hole at the root of a
tree watered with the same mixture, produces pungent
fruits (on that tree) although their natural taste is
sweet.
237. A tree which normally produces pungent fruits
starts producing fruits sweet like nectar if thickly
smeared at the root with the paste of the mixture made
out of vidanga, yasti, yava, milk, and jaggery.
238. A tree producing sour fruits starts yielding sweet
fruits if its roots are exposed and smeared with the
mixture of the honey from the flowers of madhuka, yasti,
56

and grape, crystalline sugar, and barley (and then
watered with the same ?).
239. The white flowers of a tree turn into a golden
color if the tree is watered with the mixture of
turmeric powder, kimsuka, cotton seed, manjista, and
lodhra.
240. The white flowers of a tree turn into a golden color
if it is smeared at the roots with the mixture of manjista,
darada, milk, kanksi (kind of fragrant earth), and flesh of
a pigeon.
241. Trees watered continuously with the liquid of
triphala, barley, mango seed, and indigo; and also filled
at the root with the powder of the same mixture produce
fruits resembling collyrium (see anjana).
242. Trees treated with water and paste containing the
mixture of barley, kimsuka, manjista, turmeric, and
sesame and also smeared with the same paste bear red
fruits.
243. Trees watered and smeared at roots with the
mixture of the bark of the salmali tree, turmeric, indigo,
triphala, kusta, and liquor bear fruits having the shades
of a parrot.
244. Trees watered after being sprinkled at the root with
the mixture of indigo, turmeric, lodhra, vara (triphala),
sesame, asana, kasisa and yasti—all powdered together—
produce fruits of golden color.
245. Bakula trees blossom forth producing lots of
champaka flowers if continuously fed with flesh water
after filling the bottom with plenty of mud mixed with
kalaaya and the skin of a python or snake.
(Some words are unintelligible.)
246. Plantain trees create wonder by producing
pomegranate fruits if fed by water mixed with the urine
of a hog and ankolha.
(A word is unintelligible.)
247. A castor tree produced from a seed cultured by
the marrow of a boar, treated further by the process in
the previous verse, produces karavella fruits.
248. Fragrance of the blossom can be changed by filling
(the base near) the roots of the trees with the earth
scented with the desired fragrance and then fed with
water mixed with jalada, mura, nata, valaka, and patraka.
249. All types of flowering plants produce excellent
fragrance if earth strongly scented by their own flowers
is filled around the base (of the trees) and then fed with
water mixed with musta, mura, nata leaves, and wine.
250. The same treatment used in the evening at their
blossoming time along with fat, milk, blood, and kusta
intensifies the natural fragrance of the blossoms of
punnaga, naga, bakula, etc.
251. A big and strong mud pot should be filled with
the mixture of mud and plenty of beef; and the karavira
plant should be grown there with effort by watering
profusely with cow dung and good quality beef.
252. The above stated plant of karavira should then be
shifted to a pit, previously prepared by filling with cow
bones, well-burnt ashes and then wetted by water mixed
with beef. Thereafter, the plant should be fed with plenty
of water mixed with beef. So treated, it is transformed
into a creeper to blossom profusely and perennially.
253. A tamarind plant is grown into an excellent creeper
if fed with water, mixed with the powder of triphala,
57

sesame, barley, and black gram and then smoked well
with the turmeric powder.
254-258. A seed of the kapittha should be cultured
hundred times with milk boiled along with roots of
dhatri, vaca, abhaya, asphota, asmapa, vetasa, simsapa,
suryavalli, atimukta, and palasini for over a month and
then should be sown in a pit keeping in water mixed
with ghee, honey, and ashes of cow dung, vidanga,
sesame, and flesh of the boar. Thereafter, the pit should
be filled with good quality soil measuring four fingers
in thickness and then it should be watered with the
decoction of barley, black gram, sesame, honey, fish, and
flesh. The seed then grows into a creeper, without fail.
259-260. A seed of any variety, freely rubbed with the
bark of mango creeper, jasmine, dhataki, and madhavi
mixed with the milk of a she-goat and then sown in a
pit, filled with soil dug up from around the roots of trees
belonging to different species and thereafter sufficiently
sprinkled with the powder of sesame and barley, and
(the seed so sown) watered with curd and milk grows
into the respective creeper.
261. If a tree is planted and grown faithfully with efforts
by a person, in a pit as deep as man's height and
properly covered from inside with new bricks it
blossoms even in a dwarf condition.
262-263. A plant which is not too tender should be cut
at its stem and then slightly burnt. Thereafter, it should
be smeared with the mixture of ghee, cow dung,
mineral salt, honey, and flesh. A nail should then be
slantingly driven in the root. The plant then should be
watered with milk-water. It then, produces beautiful
branches and without fail produces fruits even in a
dwarf state.

264. A plant grown in a pit supported with four pillars
     erected close to the root, carefully watered with milk
     grows into a dwarf variety.
265. If bulbs of various types of lotuses are uprooted,
     tied together firmly with threads, smeared with melted
     butter and honey and then planted, they produce those
     respective lotuses in bunches (on a single creeper).
266. Similarly several wonders of transformation can
     be worked out by tying together the stems of karavira
     and those of various species of pomegranate.
267. The ripening of fruits of a tree can be delayed by
     one year by piercing their roots with the long bones of
     monkey's legs dipped in the ichor of intoxicated
     elephant.
268. Ripening of fruits on a particular branch of a tree
     can be stopped by covering that branch firmly by the
     skin of the hunch of a bull that is just then killed.
269. The fruits on a particular branch of a tree do not
     ripen if it is covered seven times with the skin from the
     dewlap of a black bull, killed for the purpose.
270. A plantain tree with its root pierced with a
     golden rod heated in fire of dust of ivory, turns into a
     creeper producing fruits for a long time (or fruits of large
     size).
271. The plantain creeper produces wealth in the form
     of plantains as big as elephant's teeth if their roots are
     pierced with an iron needle which is heated in the fire
     made of dry cow dung and bones of pig, elephant, and
     horse.
272. The plantain tree definitely produces fruits as long
     as the pestle if the hollow tooth of a boar or a monkey,

58

filled with the ichor is carefully kept in the core of its
root.
273. Payasya, arjuna, and tarquari get destroyed if
profusely besmeared with salt water and if scratched
by the bone of a hog all over the skin.
274. The coconut tree is destroyed if fed by water used
for cleaning rice. Cotton tree immediately perishes if
fed by water treated with the leaves of neem tree.
275. A stick of the hingu tree kept at the root of the
plantain tree destroys it; the trees of ash gourd and the
cucumber and the like perish if profusely smoked with
the bones of crabs.
276. A tree drops away its fruits and flowers if watered
by the decoction of kulattha. Kimsuka, arjuna, and tarquari
(drop away their fruits and flowers) by feeding with
salt or by kindling.
277. There is no wonder if a seed separated from a
naturally ripened fruit is treated with the mixture of
the oil of ankolha and of nara (arjuna ?), and sown in a
heap of soil sprinkled with coconut water (gale water
?), grows at once.
278. A seed dipped several times in the oil of ankolha
and the fat of a pig and then dried up and sown in a
good quality soil sprinkled with coconut water (gale
water ?) grows instantly without fail.
279. A seed cultured hundred times with the oil of
slesmata sown and watered with coconut water (gale
water ?) sprouts immediately.
280. A pomegranate seed sprinkled several times with
the blood of a cock and dried up in the sun and then
sown, immediately bears fruits if watered and smoked
with human flesh and marrow.
281. If a seed is cultured in the oil of ankolha, fish,
Gangetic porpoise, human being, hog, and crocodile;
and then dried up, sown in a good soil and nourished
by coconut water (gale water ?), the tree thereof
produces flowers and fruits at once.
282. If a ripe madhukarkata is kept in an earthen jar and
left (buried) underground and nourished by water of
oil cake and flesh, it grows to the size of a jar.
283. The pomegranate tree transplanted seven times
bears fruits as big as coconut if nourished with water
containing triphala, melted butter, and marrow of a hog.
284. The mulaka, if planted in a pit filled with earth of
good quality, burnt in the fire made of the bones of cow,
hog, and dry cow dung, grows instantly.
285–286. If thick stems of cucumber and ash gourd
plants are smeared with honey and melted butter, then
tied together with straw rope and then covered with
cow dung they become one. Later, if the stem is cut
keeping the order of the root and the tip, trapusa
(cucumber) too, bears fruits of ash gourd size.
287–288. A small hole should be bored in a tender ash
gourd; and seed of the neem tree, profusely smeared
with honey and melted butter should be dropped in
through the hole. After the gourd is fully ripe the seed
should be carefully extracted and sown. It then produces
a plant which produces ample wealth in the form of
brinjals of huge size.
289. A seed of utpala should be rubbed with the mixture
of urine and dried dung of a she-buffalo for seven days
and after sowing it in rich soil should be nourished with
coconut water (gale water ?) (karakajala). It then grows
into a karavira.
59

290. The same (i.e., the seed of utpala) if wrapped in
     python's skin, sown in a land full of mud stinking with
     kalapa (rotten lotus seeds) and then nourished with flesh
     water grows into a forest of padma.
     291-292. The seed of slesmataka should be forced out
     and cultured seven times with the flesh (oil) of ankolita
     and then it should be rubbed with the dung of she-
     buffalo and dried in shade. If these seeds are mixed in
     dry buffalo dung and earth and sown and watered with
     coconut water (gale water ?) they turn into a plant of
     kumuda and there is no wonder.
     Pleasure gardens
291. Garden houses should be protected from the sun
     by thick foliage of atimuktaka creepers with honey bees
     hovering over them and flowers strewn all over by
     breeze.
292. At places beautiful ponds adorned by swans
     should be made where trees planted on their borders
     look into the water at themselves with their eyes in the
     form of flowers.
293. An extremely long pond should be constructed
     there with its water free of aquatic creatures, easy to get
     in with pleasure boats and with flowering trees around
     it. It should be dark with the sprouting lotus leaves and
     at places having blue lotuses (see utpala) resembling the
     black pupils in the eyes of beautiful women.
294. At some place a pond may be constructed holding
     the reflection of the garden in its extremely clear water
     appearing like a garden growing in the midst of water.
     At other places a pond may be planned looking as
     though filled with abundance of the moon rays leaving
     the existence of water only to be guessed.
     60
295. At intermittent places (in the garden), canopies—
     white like crystal and adorned with plantain trees—
     should be constructed where ample and gentle breeze
     should be blowing through the openings. The house—
     a plantain abode—white like the Himalaya mountain,
     well ventilated, and concealed by trees laden with
     fragrant flowers should be constructed amidst them
     (canopies).
296. At some place in the garden a well should be
     dug and constructed with stones all around having
     plenty of sweet water useful for sprinkling all the trees
     around.
297. At regular intervals of time a powder of anjana,
     musta, usira (the fragrant root of khus), naga, kosataka,
     and amalaka along with the fruits of kataka should be
     put in ample quantity in the well.
298. If the well water becomes turbid, bitter, tasteless,
     salty or foul smelling, it becomes clear, tasty, fragrant,
     and having many other good properties by the (above
     said) treatment.
     Natural indications of groundwater
     for construction of wells
299. Currents of water rise upward from the nether
     world and spread in all the directions beneath the
     ground. Investigating these, one should plan wells.
300. If canes grow in a waterless region at a distance of
     three hands, currents flow to the west of it at the depth
     of one and half man-height. It is the west current that
     flows there.
301. On digging the depth of half a man-height if a
     frog of whitish color and yellowish soil are seen then

those are indications that on penetrating further through
the layers the rock beneath will contain abundant water.
304. If close to the east of a jambu tree there is an ant
hill, then to the southern side of the tree there is plenty
of water at the depth of two man-heights.
305. At that spot after digging the depth equivalent to
half a man-height if there are indications of a fish (?),
the rock is of the color of a pigeon, and the soil is blue,
there is ample water lasting for a long period.
306. In a land where a nirgundi tree is surrounded by
ant hills, at a distance of three hands to the south a
current of continuous sweet water will be seen at the
depth of two and quarter man-height.
307. There, after digging the depth of half the man-
height a rohita fish (?) is seen. Soil of a tawny color,
thereafter whitish, and granules and sand appear in that
order and then there is water.
308. If to the east of badari tree there is an ant hill, then
the existence of water should be advised at the depth of
three man-heights to the west. After digging half a man-
height a white shrew is seen.
309. If the tree of badari has by its side a palasa tree then
to its west, water is found at the depth of three and a
quarter man-height and after digging a distance of one
man-height an earthworm is seen.
310. Where there is an ant hill in the vicinity of kastha
and udumbara trees water current flows to the western
direction at the depth of three and a quarter man-height.
311. There the soil is whitish yellow, rocks are milk
white and after digging half the man-height a mouse
white like lotus is seen.
312. If an ant hill is sighted to the south in the vicinity
of bibhitaka tree then to the east thereof water current
flows at one and a half man-height.
313. And if the ant hill is to its west at a distance of one
hand, water current flows at the depth of four and a
half man-height.
314. After digging there at the depth of a man-height a
whitish scorpion may be seen and then a rock of saffron
color. On the western direction, however, the water
current will vanish at the end of two years.
315. If to the northeast direction of a kovidara tree there
is an ant hill along with kusa and asita then between the
two trees there is a small, steady flow of water at five
and a half man-height depth.
316. If a snake of pink color resembling the
interior of a lotus on digging one man-height is seen,
red soil and rocks of ruby color are said to be the
indications.
317. If a frog is sighted amidst several trees then below
it at the depth of four and half man-height at the distance
of one hand there will be water.
318. A land which is full of munj grass or of kasa and
kusa grass and where the soil is grainy and of a bluish
color, there the water is in ample quantity and of sweet
taste. Also if the soil is black or red, water is sweet and
abundant.
319. A reddish grainy soil makes the water astringent
in taste, the land of tawny color makes it caustic, the
whitish land is stated to make the water saltish while
the blue land makes it sweet.
61

Plant indicators for crop and animal
production
320. Where there is nyagrodha tree the land is fit for
producing barley crop, where there is growth of tinduka
trees the land is good for sastika (a rice variety that
matures in 60 days) and where there is an asvattha tree
the land indicates production of all types of crops.
321. The growth of the jambu trees indicates that the
land is favorable for growth of black gram and sesame,
that of sirisa trees indicates favorability for green gram,
that of madhuka indicates favorability for wheat, and the
growth of saptaparna, favorability for barley.
322. The growth of hastikarna trees indicates the
existence of elephants while that of asvakarna tree
(name refers to leaf shape) indicates the existence of
horses. Growth of patala trees indicates abundance of
cows. The plantains indicate the profuseness of sheep
and goats.
323. Mango trees indicate happiness, bhallataka fear,
while the palm trees indicate health. Khadira and sami
indicate famine, while arjuna gives satisfactory rain.
324. The blossoms of picumanda and naga ward off
famine, kapittha suggests cry of hunger. The nicula tree
indicates fear of dry spell or epidemics.
325. Thus Surapala, the expert of medicine whose
glorious success had spread all over the world,
composed this work of Ayurveda of trees out of interest
and after mastering various skills of the profession
under the patronage of King Shri Bhimapala who was
the leader of the valiant.
Thus ends the Vrikshayurveda.
62

Notes
Figures indicate verse numbers.
5. Oblations in the form of water, sesame, cooked rice,
and other gifts are offered at the time of funeral rites or
death anniversaries of parents, ancestors, near relatives,
etc. by their closely related survivor (usually a son)
according to Hindu religion. The word "kostharuha"
literally meaning "growing in the abdomen" is not
commonly used in the sense of a "child" as is done here.
It seems to be used for two reasons: (i) in order to match
with the word "bhumiruha" and thus bring out the
intended contrast between trees and sons more
effectively; and (ii) in order to emphasize the uselessness
of sons failing in their religious duty of "feeding" their
deceased parents by offering regular oblations although
they are born from the latter's very abdomen.
7. In fact four ages are stated, viz., Satya, Treta, Dvapara,
and Kali. The author might have referred to "three" ages
excluding Kali, the last age, as the same is unfit for gods,
etc. to reside on earth due to its impurities and lack of
regard for dharma.
8. Dharma, artha, kama, moksha are the four aims of
human life—Purusarthas—as prescribed by tradition:
• dharma—It is the customary observances of rules and
regulations according to the respective caste, sect, stage
of life, etc., e.g., learning and teaching by a Brahmin,
etc.
• artha (attainment of riches or worldly prosperity)—
This is prescribed for an individual in the second stage
of his life, viz., the stage of a householder (the other
three stages are celebate, hermit, and recluse).
• kama (pursuit of sensual enjoyments)—This is also
prescribed only for a householder.
• moksha (final emancipation; deliverance of the soul
from the cycle of birth and death)—This corresponds to
the fourth stage of an individual's life, viz., that of a
recluse.
Sometimes only the first three (Purusarthatrayi) are
mentioned as they are related to this world (verse 98).
15. Rajasuya is the name of a particular sacrifice
performed by a king at the time of his coronation to
declare and establish his supremacy over other tributary
kings. It is believed to bestow upon the king, the highest
reward.
20. "Samropya no dukkhi" is found in Majumdar (1935)
and appears to be the correct reading. The context is
about glorification of the trees. Hence, the fruit promised
cannot be "suffering for seven lives".
29. This verse denounces planting badari, kadali, dadimi,
and bijapuraka close to the residence only and does not
contradict glorification of planting them elsewhere.
31. "Ksirin" is a general term describing any tree
yielding "milk" (i.e., milk-like exudation).
42. "Sopha" as a name of a tree could not be traced.
"Saka" meaning teak wood is the nearest likely word.
44. "Wealth, God, and kings have unlimited resources
and power to make possible what is ordinarily
impossible." Author's inclusion of "wealth" along with
God and king shows his awareness of money-power.
63

47. "Bahustambha vitapino" (Borkar's text). "Bahustamba
    vitapino" (Majumdar's text). The latter makes better
    sense when compared with "Aprakande stambagulmau"
    (Amarakosa II.9). "Gulma" or "stamba" denote plants
    which do not have one prominent stem. "Na vidyate
    prakando yasya" and is often used in the sense of "bushes
    or plants growing in a cluster" as defined in Amarakosa.
48. "Brhati"—Two varieties (big and small) are listed
    in Bhavaprakasanighantu: Solanum indicum Linn. and
    S. xanthocarpum Schrad & Wendl.
49. "Durakoorchitagram" is not clear.
50. The second line is defective. Both Majumdar and
    Borkar texts read as "Datvavasu vasumateem va gunavate"
    which makes sense.
51. "Beejadham" means the place that holds the seed,
    i.e., where the seed is kept. "Nrnaamstreenaam" is
    defective and must be read as "Trnaasteernnam" (covered
    with grass). "Nistrnam" means "removing the grass".
52. "Sthiram Lagnam" indicates certain zodiacal signs,
    viz., Taurus, Leo, Scorpio, and Aquarius. When the Sun
    is in association with them the condition is
    astronomically called "Sthira Lagna" because any work
    done under these signs is supposed to be lasting.
53. After growing sesame or black gram in a particular
    land it is believed to be useless for growing any other
    crop at least for a year or two. While purchasing new
    farm lands, the farmer would investigate about the crops
    produced on the land during the previous two years.
    This practice is followed even today.
54. The reference to "gotikas" is noteworthy. Kikasa is
    the breast bone and the cartilages of the rib connected
    with it. In several verses (nos. 124, 151, 196, 216, 229,

251. of Vrikshayurveda there is a reference to gomansa
     (the flesh of the cow) and in yet others (verses 220, 252,
252. there is a reference to cow bones. The use of these
     parts of a cow in agriculture indicates an implied
     sanction to the killing of a cow which is sacrilegious
     according to Hindu religion. No doubt, there are
     references to killing of a cow or eating beef in the Vedic
     literature. Cow's milk was used in the sacrificial rituals.
     Considering this usefulness, the cow was regarded as
     sacred and gradually ill-treating or killing a cow came
     to be discouraged. Somewhere in the Puranic period, a
     total ban on the killing of a cow and on beef eating was
     effectively implemented and the Smritis (the ancient
     Hindu code of law) accorded statutory sanction to the
     same. It is evident from the above-stated references in
     Vrikshayurveda, such a ban did not stop the use of flesh
     and bones of a cow in agriculture.
     In fact, ancient texts like Atharvaveda, Brhatsamhita,
     Krsisangraha of Parasara and the Sukraniti contain clear
     instructions on manuring including prescriptions of free
     use of beef, etc.

65. "Tridvihastaistadvat" is metrically defective.
    Majumdar (1935) reads as "Dvichatustribhirantaritam".
    The required correction here could be
    "Trichaturdvihastaistadvat" to suit the meter.
66. Kunapa—This was a fertilizer consisting of flesh,
    meat, and marrow of several animals. After cooking
    these, various other substances like oil cake, honey, black
    gram, ghee, etc. were added. The whole compound was
    preserved and by mixing with water, liquid fertilizers
    were prepared. The long and complicated process of
    preparing and preserving kunapa is explained in detail
    in verses 101–106.
    64

74–75. The import is not clear. When checked with
similar verses in Majumdar and Borkar texts it appears
to be a method of planting of plantains.
84. The meaning of "talapika" is not clear.
85–86. Before transplantation, the saplings of big trees
are psychologically prepared through this chanting so
that it can bear the shock of uprooting and replanting.
Though not very suitable in a science text, the verses
speak a volume for the tender care with which the trees
used to be handled by the planter.
89. "Shukra" normally denotes Friday. Here it denoted
the month of Jyestha.
91. "Bhillota" or "bhillata" (verse 195) must be the same
as "bhallataka" (Semecarpus anacardium Linn. f.) (verse
323). It is a medicine for several diseases as compared
with Bhavaprakasanighantu which reads as "Hanti
gulmajvarashvitravahnimandyakrmivranan".
93. "Paryamprushaha" cannot be satisfactorily rendered.
Majumdar (1935) reads as "patrairuparyasprsthaha"
(leaves not touching each other at the top) which
appears to be more appropriate.
94. "Mandapa", etc. describe the designs of planting.
Nandyavarta, sarvatobhadra, swastika, caturasra, etc. are
also technical terms in the science of vastu describing
different designs (Brhatsamhita Chapter 53, verses
31–36).
96. The third and the fourth lines are not clear.
97. The verbal root tri (1.P.) means to cross over; to go
beyond (e.g., a river). Taraya—its causal form means
"making someone cross over", i.e., "save". The trees
save mankind from poverty and hence are called
"taravah". The derivation is explained at the
commencement of the section on "protecting trees" in
order to impress upon the human beings the need to
protect them by reminding them of their obligation.
106. Verses 101 to 106 describe the procedure of
preparing kunapa, the fertilizer. It requires procuring
flesh, etc. of several animals. Since the whole description
may sound unusual, in the final verse Surapala specifies
that what he has stated has the sanction of earlier
thinkers.
134. Third line is metrically defective. It may read as
"Peeyushahrdyasurabheeni bahooni bilva peenani..."
138. "Kashapala" makes no sense. "Jhashapala" might
have been the reading.
143. "Kusumaih bibharti" for "kusumani bibharti" (use of
instrumental case for object) is exceptional.
144. "Sasidhu" in the first line is difficult to construe.
145. "Pushpati" here and elsewhere too, should have
been "pushpyati".
148. "Kutwaragrena" is not intelligible. The same word
appears again in verse 176. Kutharagrena could be the
word at both the places. The meaning would then be
"with the tip of an axe". The tree is to be scratched either
with the nail by a charming lady or by the tip of an axe.
The implied comparison, however, is far from being
complimentary to a charming lady.
151. This verse can be compared with Shakuntala, Act
I, where a jasmine creeper is described as "the bride" of
the mango tree.
153. "Lola keela kalapa kavalyh kalita cha malli"—The
content is effortlessly embellished with alliteration.
65

158. "Bhasmaavajnagnisambhavam" does not make any
     sense. Instead, it would be appropriate if it is replaced
     by "Bhasmaavajragnisambhavam" implying "the fire
     caused by lighting".
     160–162. The mantra for protecting the trees is in the
     form of an order by Hanuman to rats, shrews,
     grasshoppers, etc. which destroy the fields. The mighty
     Hanuman is stated to be threatening them away by
     thumping his powerful tail, hard like diamond. Other
     epithets, viz., lanar, dehar, and pachar are not intelligible.
     The grammatical formations too are not clear. When
     compared with the Majumdar and Borkar texts the
     wording is not identical. Majumdar and Borkar also read
     a full anustubh verse describing Hanuman as a lion
     among monkeys. The thunder is stated to be the
     exploding sounds produced by the wind which is
     inherent in Hanuman, who is a Vayuputra. Probably the
     words in Surapala's texts, viz., lunar, dehar, pachar, etc

280. "Dadima" in the second line is metrically faulty.
     The second letter has to be deergha. "Dadimba" suits the
     meter.
281. "Utpala" is the blue lotus; and "padma" is the lotus
     that closes towards the evening. The verse describes the
     recipe to transform the seed of the former so as to
     produce the latter.
282. "Kumuda" is a lotus that blooms at the rise of the
     moon. "Kumudam kumadam" is a figurative expression.
     The second word means a man with bad conceit.
     305, 307. The reference to "fish" underneath the ground
     is curious.
283. Read as "nirgundi" instead of "gundi".
     About the Translator
     Dr Nalini Sadhale obtained MA in Sanskrit with distinction from the University of Poona, Pune, India
     and PhD in Sanskrit from Osmania University, Hyderabad, India. She has had a distinguished professional
     career and she retired in 1994 as Professor and Head of the Department of Sanskrit, Osmania University,
     Hyderabad. She distinguished herself by serving on several prestigious organizations, committees, and
     boards. She worked as Sastra Chudamani Scholar of the Rashtriya Sanskrit Samsthan, New Delhi, India.
     She has several publications which include Katha in Sanskrit Poetics, Sanskrit Verse Translation of Hindi
     Tulasiramayana, translations of Urvashi and Vasantsena from Sanskrit to Marathi, and Sitajosyam, a
     Marathi translation of Telugu play by Narla V Rao. She is currently working as Chief Editor of Panchadhara,
     a Marathi quarterly journal.
     Present address: 3-6-468, Hardikar Bagh, Himayatnagar, Hyderabad 500 029, Andhra Pradesh, India.
     67

Bibliography

Sanskrit texts

Anonymous. 1916. Susrutasamhita. Nirnaya Sagar
Press, Bombay, India.
Baldevprasad Misra (ed.). Brhatsamhita of
Varahamihira.
Borkar, D B (Tr.). Sartha Upavanavinoda. Borkar Mala,
Pune, India.
Chunekar, K and Pandey, G (eds.). 1986.
Bhavaprakasanighantu of Bavamisra. 7th edition.
Varanasi, India.
Majumdar (Tr. and ed.). 1935. Upavanavinoda. Indian
Research Institute, Calcutta, India.
Sharma, Pt. R D et al. 1981. Carakasamhita. Chowkamba
Bharati Academy, Varanasi, India.

Other works

Dasgupta and De. 1947. A History of Sanskrit Literature.
Vol I. University of Calcutta, Calcutta, India.
Gray, L H. 1962. Vasavadatta. 2nd edition. Motilal
Banarasidas, New Delhi, India.
Joshi, Pt. M. 1962. Bharatiya Sanskriti Bharatiya Kosha.
Sanskriti Kosha Mandal, Pune, India.
Keith, A B. 1929. A History of Sanskrit Literature. Oxford
University Press, London, UK. (Reprinted in 1956.)

Dictionaries

Anonymous. 1929. Amarakosa. Vth edition. Nirnaya
Sagar Press, Bombay, India.
Apte, V S. 1977. Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Prasad
Prakashan, Pune, India.
Williams, M. Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Indian
edition). Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, India.
68

Commentaries
69

Biodiversity Perspective

K L Mehra¹
Vrikshayurveda, written by Surapala in Sanskrit, is not
readily available in Indian libraries. It is, therefore,
appreciable that Dr Y L Nene, Chairman, Asian Agri-
History Foundation, not only procured a copy of the
text from the Bodleian Library, Oxford, UK, but also
arranged to get the text translated into English. Dr Nalini
Sadhale has done a commendable job of translating the
Sanskrit text. A copy of the translation was provided to
this commentator for comments on the plant
biodiversity and ethno-botanical aspects of the text. The
commentator assisted Dr Sadhale by providing
botanical names of the plant species mentioned in
Vrikshayurveda.
Vrikshayurveda, which means "The Science of Plant
Life", mainly deals with various species of trees and
their healthy growth and productivity. The text
mentions about 170 species of plants, including herbs,
shrubs, and trees. There are 325 systematically arranged
verses, beginning with a salutation to Lord Ganesha,
followed by glorification of trees, and composition on
tree-planting and production. Various chapters deal
with the raising of orchards, agri-horticulture, and tree-
planting near houses. Special references are made on
procuring, preserving, and treatment of seeds and
planting materials; preparation of pits for planting;
selection of land (soil); methods of irrigation and ways
to locate groundwater; nourishment and fertilizers;
diseases of plants and plant protection; laying out of
gardens and orchards; creation of agricultural /
horticultural wonders; use of plant species as indicators
of crop and animal production; and description of
sacred plants. This commentary deals with
biodiversity conservation and utilization aspects of the
text.

Biodiversity conservation

It seems that the text was written to help conserve plant
biodiversity of selected tree species. Surapala admitted
frankly that he compiled, out of interest, the works of
sages and that he had not stated anything of his own
(verses 3, 325). He elaborated on the importance and
glory of trees and took advantage of common peoples'
beliefs, religious attitudes, superstitions, and folk
knowledge to persuade people to plant trees (verses
4–34). He also elaborated on the benefits that a person
was likely to derive by planting trees, both in this life
and after life (in heaven) or after re-birth. The cultural
history of India is associated with religious beliefs and
any emphasis on or arguments dealing with plant-man-
God relationship appeals to people even today. This
attitude still prevails in India and many sacred groves
and places of worship have continued to preserve in-
situ biodiversity of specific species of plants. Surapala
took special pains to classify plants and planting
materials (verses 45–51) and provided methods to
procure planting materials and extraction of seeds (verse
52). He provided instructions on the treatment of seeds

1. Director (Retd.), National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New
   Delhi 110 067, India. Present address: 38 Munirka Enclave,
   New Delhi 110 067, India.
   71

and planting materials to promote germination, seedling
growth, and seedling care (verses 53–62).
Vrikshayurveda deals with cultural practices, e.g.,
sowing of seeds and planting materials; transplanting
of seedlings; spacing between plants and planting
design; preparation of underground pits for seedlings;
seed and fertilizer treatments; watering; planting of
bulbs; sowing or planting time; layout of garden or
landscaping; and other cultural practices (for details see
verses 63–99). Several verses of Vrikshayurveda deal
with plant nutrition; organic fertilizers and their
methods of preparation and application; weeding; and
herbal fertilizer recipes, with or without animal
products, but using one or more species of plants in
specific formulations for target species of trees (for
details see verses 101–115). Several verses (127–154)
provide information on irrigation methods, using water
mixed with herbal products obtained from different
plant species and animal products. Several verses
(116–156) deal with methods to increase fruit production
in different plant species, using herbal formulations,
some of which are species specific.
Vrikshayurveda deals with symptoms of plant diseases
and insect attack, and suggests several methods, using
herbal preparations to maintain excellent health of
different plant species (for details see verses 165–222).
Vrikshayurveda suggests ways to create horticultural
wonders with specific species of plant and animal
products, singly and in formulation (for details see
verses 223–300). Most of these recommendations need
to be tested to verify the claims, while others such as
plantain trees producing pomegranate (verse 246) are
simply not feasible. Surapala compiled the available
information and systematically organized the
recommendations, hoping that the readers would follow
them and use them (verse 3). It seems that Surapala
provided extensive recommendations on cultural
practices from planting to fruit production and plant
protection so that people will conserve the plant
biodiversity and enjoy its benefit (verse 3). He also made
specific recommendations relating to species of plants
that grow in specific environments: marshy, arid, and
ordinary lands (for details see verses 41–43). This reveals
his deep understanding of the agroclimatic conditions
and of adaptation of specific plant species to specific
environments or lands.

Plant indicators

Surapala carefully recorded several plant species and
the ecological conditions under which they grow. Thus,
he noted that occurrence of certain plant species could
be used as indicators for crop production, animal
production, water availability, and other attributes.

Crop production

Surapala referred to seven species of trees considered
as indicators of specific crop production areas due to
their natural occurrence on land. These tree species are:
Ficus benghalensis for barley, Diospyros tomentosa for a
rice variety that matures in 60 days, Ficus religiosa for
all types of crops, Syzygium cuminii for growing black
gram and sesame, Albizia lebbek for green gram, Madhuca
indica for growing wheat, and Alstonia scholaris for barley
production (verses 320–321).

Animal production

Surapala mentioned (verse 322) that the occurrence of
Butea monosperma indicated the presence of elephants,
72

asvakarna of horses, Stereospermum suaveolens of cows,
and plantains of abundance of goats.

Water availability

Surapala mentioned that the natural occurrence of
Syzygium cuminii near ant hills (verse 304), Scirpus
grossus (verse 306), Ziziphus mauritiana and Butea
monosperma (verse 309), kastha and Ficus glomerata (verse
310), bibhitaka (verse 312), and kovidara, Desmostachya
bipinnata, and Indigofera tinctoria (verse 315) would
indicate availability of water for irrigation. These claims
need to be verified.

Other situations

Surapala also compiled folklore on tree species (verse
323) which were considered as indicators of happiness
(mango), fear (bhallataka), health (palm tree), famine
(khadira and Prosopis cineraria), and rain (Terminalia
arjuna). The flowering of Azadirachta indica warded off
famine, Limonia acidissima suggested cry of hunger, and
Barringtonia acutangula indicated fear of dry spells or
epidemic conditions (verse 324).

Ethno-botany

Sacred plants

Several verses (10–19) of Vrikshayurveda elucidate
the relationship between certain species of plants
and the religious life of people. Specific plant
species were considered sacred and especially
associated with specific gods and goddesses, e.g., Aegle
marmelos and Ficus benghalensis (Siva), Azadirachta indica
(Sun), Mangifera indica (Garuda), Butea monosperma
(Brahma), Ficus glomerata (Moon), Madhuca indica
(Parvati; also other deities), and Ficus religiosa (Vishnu,
Hari).

Auspicious and inauspicious plants

Surapala (verses 24–26) provided a list of auspicious and
inauspicious trees for planting and their location near a
house, e.g., Ficus benghalensis (auspicious when planted
in the east but not in the west), Ficus glomerata (south,
not north), Ficus religiosa (west, not east) and Ficus lacor
(north, not south side of a house). He also mentioned
that laying of a garden to the south, southwest, or
northeast of a house leads to quarrels, distress, and
adversity (verse 33). Therefore, he recommended that
gardens should be laid out on the western, northern,
and eastern sides of a house (verse 34). He mentioned
that shadows of trees should not fall on the house (verse
28).
Surapala also listed (verses 29–32) several plant species
considered to be inauspicious. The planting or natural
occurrence of such plants leads to unhappiness (Ricinus
communis, Bauhinia variegata, Cordia wallichii, Terminalia
arjuna, and Pongamia pinnata), danger from enemies
(thorny plants, in general), loss of wealth (Manilkara
hexandra), and loss of progeny and prosperity (Ziziphus
mauritiana, Musa paradisiaca, Punica granatum, Citrus
limon, Indigofera tinctoria, and Curcuma longa). The taboos
associated with inauspicious trees and planting of
auspicious trees contained in Vrikshayurveda evoke
curiosity. The text does not specifically mention why
specific plant species are to be avoided. The text is also
silent on the issue of planting specific trees but not about
others on a particular side of the house. Perhaps, it may
refer to the climate and direction of the sun and rain in
relation to different rooms and their uses within the
household.
73

Conclusions
An analytical study of Vrikshayurveda written by
Surapala would enable the contemporary investigators
to delve into the past compilations of scientific works
on tree plantations—their growth and productivity—
and often linking modern knowledge with that of the
past. The scientific identification of Sanskrit plant
names, the therapeutic and various folk uses of plants,
and beliefs about different plant species constitute
important aspects of conservation and uses of plant
biodiversity. Such knowledge, especially folk beliefs and
other ethno-botanical uses of plants would help us
understand plant-man-environment relationship for
preserving biodiversity and knowledge bases for the use
of future generations of humankind.

74

Agronomic Aspects
S M Virmani¹
The English translation by Dr Nalini Sadhale of
Vrikshayurveda written by Surapala, around 1000 AD(?)
on the broader subject of 'arbori-horticulture'
comprehensively deals with the development and
maintenance of gardens. It contains knowledge on the
allied concern of sustaining the quality of soils and the
place of plant species to meet food, shelter, and aesthetic
needs of the different strata of society. If scientific
knowledge, as we understand it today, means gathering
accurate and systematic knowledge, then, Surapala's
tome on Indian arbori-horticulture is an organized
attempt on how plants grow and how their production
can be sustained by agronomic management.
Surapala's Vrikshayurveda may be rated as an early
literary work on the Indian philosophical systems of
knowledge, relating to agricultural sciences. After all,
the very term 'science' entered the English lexicon
during early 18th century. It came from France where it
meant (or was synonymously used with) knowledge.
Surapala's text meets all the broad parameters of the
term 'science' because it is an objective unbiased
systematic enquiry into systematic learning on how
plants grow, flower, and can be reproduced. The text is
largely driven by a sense of curiosity by the author on
the phenomena of production of trees. I would describe
the text as a mélange of science, philosophy, and social
sciences. We probably have come a full circle in our
scientific ethos. Today, we place a high value on
science as a tool for social advancement. When
we do not fully understand all the components
of a scientific system, we bridge the gap with what we
today call 'fuzzy' knowledge. When all steps of a
phenomena are fully documented within a scientific
regime—we call it science. Seen in this perspective
Vrikshayurveda, may be one amongst the early texts
that ushered in a scientific ethos in Indian agricultural
sciences.
In this commentary I will briefly discuss a few
important subjects that I have picked up from the
text. These are: the place of Vrikshayurveda in
contemporary agricultural sciences; an analysis of
suggested methods of successfully growing trees of
various kinds—ornamental, fruit-bearing, shade-giving,
etc., and their relevance to contemporary science and
the practice of arboriculture; the ecological niche for
trees during Surapala's time and today; and finally, what
use the knowledge base contained in the
Vrikshayurveda can be made as a springboard for
sustaining modern agriculture in the approaching
millennia to provide food and nutrition for the growing
populations.
Vrikshayurveda in contemporary
times
In today's world, global environmental issues relating
to sustainable development have emerged as topics of

1. Principal Scientist (Agroclimatology), International Crops
   Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru
   502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India.
   75