major concern. The Bruntland Commission report of
1976 and the Agenda 21 adopted by the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development have
challenged us to look beyond the obvious issues of
producing more food together with giving a fuller
recognition to issues of biodiversity. Vrikshayurveda is
replete with references that suggest that raising trees is
a means of attaining the four broad aims of life: dharma,
artha, kama, and moksha, which broadly mean that for
an holistic development of mankind and its welfare in
all its spheres including inter-generational equity, trees
have an important place. Fortunately, these are key
words for today's sustainable development of
agriculture.
In the text, considerable details are made available on
the kinds of trees—both shade-giving and
fruit-bearing—and flowering shrubs that can be
successfully grown and their benefits they provide.
Based on their growth habit both above- and below-
ground, and the kind of products they yield,
recommendations are made on aspects of their planting
and the distance of location of trees around the house.
As an example, the text suggests that the distance of
planting of the tree from the residence should be such
that its shadow does not fall on the house. Today, we
know that the diameter and height of the canopy of a
tree are related to the extent to which its roots can spread,
i.e., the diameter is related to their circumference of
spread and root depth is related to the height. During
the old days, houses were mainly built with wood or
mud and had weak foundations. The roots of the tree
could damage the structure; therefore the
recommendation. Many such examples abound in the
text.

Methods for sustainable horticultural
production
It is also evident from the study of Vrikshayurveda that
the people were those days well aware of the impact of
the quality of the soil on the growth of trees. Three types
of soil with respect to water content were recognized:
arid, marshy, and ordinary. In our agroecological studies
today, we use a similar classification: arid lands are moist
for a short period and limit plant growth due to a short
growing period; wetlands or marshy lands are over-
supplied with water but have poor soil-air-water
relations; and the ordinary lands (the uplands) have a
semi-arid soil moisture regime. These three soil types
are further sub-divided by their color and mineral
content, and the presence of soil biota and stones. In
fact, the soil classification systems in use today to assess
suitability of land for various purposes employ
somewhat similar criteria (Fig. 1).
The Vrikshayurveda recommends that lands that are
either acidic or salty or have an abundance of stones
and gravel are dry (with no accessibility to water); and
lands with ant hills are not suitable for horticultural
production. Incidently, even today we use the same
indicators to judge land suitability for laying out tree-
plantations.
The text abounds with references to the various methods
for raising plants, e.g., from seed, from stalks, from
bulbs, etc. The quality of some seeds having long periods
of dormancy was known. Methods for treating such
seeds with various forms of organic matter and by using
heat treatment to break the dormancy were
recommended. It is thus suggested that the learned
persons of Surapala's time had carefully observed

76

Soils
Ustalfs
Inceptisols
Vertic Soils
Vertisols
Psamments
Udupts / Udalfs
Orthids
Loamy Alfisols
Sandy Alfisols
Lucknow
Patna
Bhubaneshwar
India
Figure 1. The probable region of Surapala's study.

various phenomena related to the establishment,
growth, and development of trees, cataloged them in a
systematic manner, and were operationally using the
information in their day-to-day work.

In the book, there is an extended section on
methods of planting trees. Recommendations on
planting distance for different species of trees were
suggested from 6 m to 10 m. Observations in the
text, such as planting trees too far resulting in
losses due to high velocity winds and that trees produce
low yields when planted too close reveal that
careful studies must have been made over sufficiently
long periods of time (something that we call
long-term experiments, today). The subject
of the preparation of pits includes references to
the depth, diameter, addition of soil mixed with ash
(high in K), encrushed bones (high in Ca), farm-
yard manure, and ingredients having
properties for controlling soil pathogens. The
knowledge on mulching the soil surface (to save on
water requirements), grafting, transplanting, plant
protection seems to be well developed at the time
when Vrikshayurveda was written. Integrated

77

pest management methods—cultural, organo-chemical,
and smoke—were probably used extensively.
The nourishment of different trees as per their mineral
requirements in time and space was another aspect
which was well understood. There are references of the
application of liquid manures of various kinds of animal
origin for the preparation of farm-yard manure, and oil
cakes/plant residues. The subjects of weed control,
water management, ripening of fruits, preservation of
flowers for longer periods of time, and protection of
gardens from animal damage are well described. There
are notable references of spraying of some flowering
shrubs and creepers with wine—apparently to meet iron
deficiency. Similarly the knowledge to control plant
pests by organic formulations seemed to be well
developed.

Ecology and Vrikshayurveda

The place of horticulture in ecology both at the home
garden scale and at the field scale was well understood,
as is evident from references such as in verse 9: A person
is honored in Heaven for as many thousand years as
the days he resides in a house where tulasi (a kind of
flowering shrub) is grown; or in verse 10: And if one
properly grows bilva (a tree), which pleases Lord Siva,
in his family (courtyard), the goddess of riches resides
permanently (in his house) and this (riches) is passed
on to his sons and grandsons. Apparently the place of
trees in environmental maintenance and food chain was
well understood. The saints and philosophers of the time
extolled the people to 'grow more trees'—a slogan that
we seem to have rediscovered during the past few
decades.

Modern agriculture and Vrikshayurveda

It would be naive of me to suggest that all that was
written and compiled on the art and science of arbori-
horticultural aspects of agriculture, a thousand years
ago, can be applied or adapted in modern agriculture;
nor do I pretend that the knowledge base was adequate
to meet today's demands on land for food security. But
a study of the text of Vrikshayurveda gives the scientists
a reference in time—a benchmark—to pinpoint the
source of visionary perceptions shrouded in mystery of
Indian ethos. It is interesting to note that the Indian
knowledge base was deductive and carried with it
inductive logic. Issues like location specificity of
technologies with which modern science of agriculture
is still to grapple with fully, to say the least, was known
to the people in Surapala's times.
There are indeed many hypotheses and sayings
included in Vrikshayurveda that cannot be substantiated
today. Further genuine research for knowledge in the
discovery of these hypotheses consistent with known
facts on a holistic system of world order during different
eras or time-scales need to be constructed. Nonetheless,
Surapala's tome suggests that many theories of our
times were first logically thought of or hypothesized
by the ancient thinkers of India some 1000 years ago.
Finally let me add an epilogue. A study of
Vrikshayurveda leads one to believe that there is no
reason to suggest that any particular innate racial or
national deficiency exists in any region of the world to
develop systems of knowledge. The growth of science
and its advancement has to be nurtured at all times.
Scientific progress is a cumulative effect of advancement
78

of knowledge. We must, therefore look back at the past,
but with a critical reverence, so that we can understand
the reasoning of that age and plan for times ahead. I am
not suggesting for a moment that the people of
Surapala's time had already achieved a level of
agricultural technology equal to what we know in
modern times. But we must keep plodding ahead: with
our feet firmly on the ground which has been nurtured
by scholars like Surapala, and we must set our eyes on
achieving the goals of sustainable food security for our
people in the years to come.
It has been a learning experience for me to go through
the pages of Vrikshayurveda. I commend it to all who
are interested to learn from the past and to build a future
on a firm corner-stone of science.

79

Ailments

Y L Nene¹
I had been reading references to Surapala's
Vrikshayurveda for the past several years in bits and
pieces. This is the first time I could read an English
translation of the complete treatise; thanks to the
excellent effort by Dr Nalini Sadhale. This time the
Vrikshayurveda made a definite impact on my mind
and I felt incrementally more excited each time I re-read
the translation. Surapala, in this brief treatise, has
documented the wide knowledge-base related to arbori-
horticulture that existed centuries ago in South Asia. I
would like to elaborate below the reasons for my
excitement:
• Plant protection was already recognized as an
important activity. Details of the symptoms of various
disorders must have been observed over long periods
before arriving at definite descriptions and attributing
specific symptoms to various causes. I am not aware of
any other attempt in the world by which plant disorders
were classified into two groups; i.e. internal and external
before the time of Surpala. Further it is very significant
that physiology of trees was considered similar to those
of humans and therefore classifying the internal
disorders into vata, kafa, and pitta kinds (humors) as had
been done in case of humans. Several of the symptoms
described can be attributed today to fungi, bacteria,
viruses, or nematodes. In addition, damage due to other
non-infectious causes (external) such as excessive heat,
frost, mechanical injuries, drought or waterlogging,
birds, excessive growth of creepers (dodder ?), and
competition by weeds was recognized (see Table 1).
• Considerable thought must have been given over
centuries to the remedies before prescriptions to manage
the disorders could have been formulated. It is most
significant that various methods of treatments, adopted
today, were conceptualized and practiced centuries ago.
Seed treatments, prior to sowing, to ensure successful
and vigorous germination were given a lot of
importance. Good nutrition was recognized as a
preventive measure for ailments and at the same time
wrong treatments and excessive application of remedial
materials were recognized as problem-creating
situations. Dressing of wounds, mechanical or
physiological, were in vogue. Application of pastes over
affected tree surfaces was suggested. Drenching of soil
with various materials was a recommended practice.
Treating roots before transplanting was recommended.
Fumigation of trees and seeds by burning (to produce
smoke) specific materials was considered to be useful.
Spraying/dusting with appliances, as we do today, had
not evolved, but the crude versions of these are found
in sprinkling aqueous suspensions of materials and
application of brick-powder as dust.
• Several botanicals and other materials had been
identified and recommended for application on ailing
plants. We know today that many of the botanicals

1. Chairman, Asian Agri-History Foundation, 47 ICRISAT Colony-I,
   Brig. Sayeed Road, Secunderabad 500 009, Andhra Pradesh, India
   and also Deputy Director General, International Crops Research
   Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru 502 324,
   Andhra Pradesh, India.
   80

Table 1. Information contained in the Vrikshayurveda related to kinds of disorders observed in trees, causes and symptoms attributed, and remedies suggested.

Table 1. continued
Disorder | Cause given | Symptoms | Cause elaborated | Possible causes | Treatment materials
| | | | | be filled in the basin, sprinkled with buf-
| | | | | falo milk and water. If branches fall off, the
| | | | | particular spot should be dressed with the
| | | | | mixture of honey and ghee and sprinkled
| | | | | over with milk and water.
| Fire/lightning, | Drying of trees; | na⁷ | Same as causes | Burnt branches should be cut off and cuts
| soil aridity, water | symptoms simi- | | given. | should be sprinkled with water and milk,
| stress | lar to vata-type if | | | and smoked by burning crab shells. If
| | exposed to heat | | | scorched with fire, whole tree should be
| | on arid soils. | | | smeared with lotus mud and then should
| | | | | be watered with kunapa mixture. Tree struck
| | | | | with lightning should be anointed with
| | | | | vidari, sugar, red arsenic, and sesame mixed
| | | | | together and then sprinkled with milk-wa-
| | | | | ter. In case soil is bad, it should be replaced
| | | | | with good soil and sprinkled with milk-
| | | | | water. Water-stress: water with milk-water
| | | | | and foment by crab shell smoke.
| Struck by axe, | Trees wounded | na | Same as causes | Tree wounds are healed if paste of the bark
| etc. | resulting in dry- | | given. | of nyagrodha and udumbara, cow dung,
| | ing up. | | | honey, and ghee is applied.
| Faulty seed | Trees become un- | Lack of appropri- | Seed infected with | Seed should be treated with milk, mustard,
| | productive. | ate seed treatment; | pathogens or in- | ash of sesame and brhati, rubbing with cow
| | | wrong remedies | fested by insects. | dung, honey, and/or vidanga (see verses
| | | used. | | 52-57).
| Ants | Foul smell, origi- | na | Ants could mean a | Worms (caterpillars?) accumulated on trees
| | nal fragrance | | wide range of in- | can be removed by smoking with a mixture
| | missing; reduc- | | sects. | of white mustard, ramatha, vidanga, vaca,
| | tion of leaf size, | | | usana, and water mixed with beef, horn of
| | stunted seed- | | | a buffalo, flesh of a pigeon, and powder of
| | lings. | | | bhallata; anointing trees with vidanga mixed
| | | | | with ghee, watering for 7 days with soft
| | | | | water, and applying ointment made out of
| | | | | beef, white mustard, and sesame; sprinkling
| | | | | powder of ashes and brick-dust.
| Excessive water- | Symptoms simi- | Trees suffer from | Same as cause | Tender plants should be scratched with
| ing | lar to those pro- | indigestion. | given. | nails, uprooted, and every root should be
| | duced in case of | | | smeared with the mixture of honey and
| | damage by ants. | | | vidanga, and then watered.
continued
82

Table 1. continued
Disorder | Cause given | Symptoms | Cause elaborated | Possible causes¹ | Treatment materials
— | Friction with other trees, continuous shade, inhabitation by too many birds, excessive growth of creepers, growth of weeds nearby. | Destruction of trees | na | na | Manuscript is silent; perhaps it is assumed that causes will be eliminated by farmers.

1. The commentator has interpreted the causes in the context of present knowledge base.
2. na = Information not available or inability to interpret.
   recommended by Surapala possess biocidal properties.
   Some plant species were used for other properties such
   as stickiness. I found the use of lotus mud most
   fascinating; i.e., to ensure long residual action of the
   prescribed materials. Modern humans will raise
   eyebrows when they would think of applying milk to
   trees, but we must remember that almost every farmer,
   as in remote villages of South Asia even today, kept cows
   and/or buffaloes. If there was no market for these
   products nearby, the farmer must have had more milk
   than the family needed. Such a surplus could have easily
   been spared for trees. The same case must have been
   true for ghee (clarified butter). I am unable to
   comprehend the use of some materials such as cow horn,
   tiger flesh, elephant milk, and horse hair. Likewise it is
   difficult for me to accept the remedy prescribed in verse
   159 to prevent hail shower (see Table 2).
   • Among the botanicals used, I find one of them,
   vidanga, suggested frequently. We do not seem to know
   much about its biocidal properties. Here is an
   opportunity for our scientists to look at this plant closely
   and critically.
   • Where the scholars of those time failed to offer any
   practical remedy, they seem to have resorted to prayers,
   as we do today. For example, in verses 160–164 we see
   evidence of prayer to ward off damage due to rats, and
   other difficult pests.
   • I found some recommendations enigmatic. For
   example in verse 63, Surapala suggested no planting
   for a year or two after growing sesame or black gram.
   On the other hand, Varahamihira (500 AD) in his
   Brhatsamhita mentioned that when a piece of land was
   brought under a crop, sesame should be planted,
   chopped down, and incorporated into soil before seed
   was produced. I had conjectured, based on reports from
   India and Nigeria, that incorporation of sesame would
   reduce biomass of the obnoxious weed, Cyperus
   rotundus, and also sesame is a good trap crop for Striga.
   Therefore, Varahamihira had good reasons to
   recommend sesame for a new/fallow field.
   83

Table 2. A tabular compilation of materials recommended in Vrikshayurveda for managing various plant disorders and information on the
chemical constituents of these materials in the context of present knowledge base.
Constituents / properties
Materials recommended Verse number(s) reported¹ Additional information
Hog fat 186 Fatty acids on decomposi- Carcasses must have been easily available.
tion.
Porpoise oil 186 Fatty acids on decomposi- Carcasses must have been easily available.
tion.
Ghee (clarified butter) 186, 192, 196, 198, 200–201, Fatty acids on decomposi- In old times every farmer normally had ghee in ex-
203, 210 tion. cess of his needs.
Hemp (sann hemp?) 186 na² na
Horse hair 186 na na
Cow / buffalo horn 186, 195 na na
Panchamula (roots of five 187 Molluscicidal; antifungal; Molluscicidal and antifungal triterpenoid saponin
plant species) antiviral; antifeedant; from the roots; antiviral activity in leaf extracts; in-

• Clerodendrum phlomoides antibacterial. sect growth-inhibitive and antifeedant properties
  due to neoclerodane diterpenes, etc. from leaves;
  antibacterial properties in leaf extracts.
• Aegle marmelos Antifungal (Sclerotinia Antimicrobial and anthelmintic properties in seed;
  sclerotiorum); antifeedant for leaf powder effective against Meloidogyne; decom-
  insects; nematicidal posed leaves antifungal (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum); leaf
  (Meloidogyne spp.) extracts reduced rice tungro by interfering with
  leafhopper feeding.
• Stereospermum suaveolens Antifungal; antibacterial. Bark contains crystalline substance having antifun-
  gal and antibacterial properties.
• Gmelina arborea na Bark and roots contain alkaloids; resinous substances
  present.
• Oroxylum indicum Antiseptic properties. Bark contains alkaloids, tannic acid, and a glucoside
  called tetuine.
  White mustard 52, 53, 188, 194, 195, 196, 198 Insect antixenosis and Sinalbin responsible for anti-insect properties; mus-
  (Sinapis alba = Brassica alba) antibiosis; acaricidal; tard meal attracts natural enemies of Brassica root
  nematicidal; antifungal. flies; acaricidal in mixture with powdered garlic;
  glucosinolates found nematicidal (against Heterodera
  schachtii); fungicidal activity due to allyl
  isothiocyanate.
  continued
  84

Table 2. continued
Constituents/properties
Materials recommended Verse number(s) reported¹ Additional information
Sesame (tila) 53, 55, 188, 196, 198, 206, Allelopathic to rice; insect- Allelopathy studies were carried out using extracts
207, 215, 216–217 repellent; insecticidal. of sesame parts; repellent to stored rice pest
(Sitophilus oryzae); oil used in insecticide formula-
tions; mucilaginous juice of plant is used to destroy
head lice; presence of antioxidants in oil preserve it
longer.
Ash 188, 197 na Probably served as "sterile" powder as well as a
source of minerals.
Milk (cow/buffalo) 52, 54, 55, 191, 194, 198, 199, Virus inhibitor; excellent Casein of milk gives spreader-sticker properties.
200–201, 203, 204, 207, 208, sticker/spreader; good for Saprophytic bacteria can promote antibiosis against
209, 212, 213, 214, 218 saprophytic bacteria. pathogens.
Honey 54, 191, 192, 200–201, 203, Mildly antimicrobial. na
210, 213, 219
Yastimadhu (licorice) 191 Antimicrobial; antimuta- Antifungal and antimicrobial activity due to sa-
genic activity; allows colo- ponin; saponins are in inner bark; principal constitu-
nization of vesicular- ent (glycyrrhizin) present in underground parts.
arbuscular endomycorrhi-
zae; antifungal and antibac-
terial.
Madhuka (mahua) (Indian 191 Insecticidal oil; piscicidal; Reduces survival of rice green leafhopper and thus
butter tree) antibacterial. reduces tungro incidence; oil cake has saponin
(mowrin). Cake also possesses insecticidal and pis-
cicidal properties. Flowers have antibacterial prop-
erties.
Fruits of triphala (Terminalia 192 The three fruits together Dried flesh surrounding the seed is rich in tannin
chebula, T. bellirica, and have anthelmintic proper- (30%)
Phyllanthus emblica) ties.
Cold water 193 Removes insects from roots Irrigation of trees for 7 days
and branches.
Kunapa water (liquid ma- 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, Nourishing. Already an "ancient" practice during Surapala's
nure) 194, 199, 205, 214 time.
Cow dung 53, 54, 194, 210 Mucous present in the dung na
provides "cementing" effect
in a paste.
continued
85

Table 2. continued
Materials recommended | Verse number(s) | Constituents/properties reported¹ | Additional information
Vaca (Zingiber zerumbet) | 194, 195 | Antibacterial. | The oil containing monocyclic sesquiterpene ketone called zerumbone shows antibacterial properties.
Kusta (costus) | 194 | Insecticidal (repellents, antifeedant); antiseptic. | Reported effective against red cotton bug and stored grain pest (Tribolium castaneum). Costus oil is an excellent sticker, used for protecting shawls and woolen fabrics from insects.
Ativisa (Aconitum sp.) | 194 | High phenolic content; insecticidal and rodenticidal. | Grows in Himalayan region; known to inhibit germination of other plant species, e.g., rice.
Ramatha (asafoetida) | 195 | Biocidal properties (antifungal; antimicrobial). | Inhibition of mycelial growth and sclerotium formation in two soilborne fungi—Rhizoctonia solani and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum reported; contains resin (40-60%), gum (25%), and volatile oil (10-17%).
Vidanga (bidanga) (Embelia ribes) | 52, 54, 195, 196, 198, 212, 219 | Anthelmintic; antibacterial; insecticidal. | Aqueous extracts of fruits have antibacterial activity; crushed seeds of Embelia schimperi are eaten by Masai people (in Tanzania and Kenya) to eliminate intestinal tapeworms; embelin (benzoquinone) obtained from vidanga is effective against stored grain pests.
Usana (black pepper) | 195 | Bacteriostatic; fungistatic; insecticidal. | Oleoresin, present in black pepper, shows bacteriostatic and fungistatic properties and retards rancidity due to the presence of tocopherols; alkaloid (piperin) gives the pungency and shows more insecticidal property than pyrethrums.
Pigeon flesh | 195 | na | na
Bhillata (bhallataka) (Semecarpus anacardium) | 195 | Insecticidal; antiseptic; termite-repellent; mildew- and moth-proofing of cloth; anthelmintic; antibacterial. | Rich source of phenols; kernel oil used for preserving wood against termites; leaves contain saponins; fruits have anthelmintic property; juice of pericarp is antibacterial.
Beef | 195, 196, 216–217 | na | Manurial effect (?).
Brick-dust | 197 | na | Interference with insect feeding (?).
Cow's urine | 198 | na | na
Plaksa (Ficus lacor) and udumbara (F. glomerata) | 200–201, 210 | na | Some Ficus spp. are known to possess antibacterial activity; bark of F. glomerata contains 14% tannin; latex of F. lacor is anthelmintic.
continued
86

Table 2. continued
Constituents/properties
Materials recommended Verse number(s) reported¹ Additional information
Wine 200–201 Properties of alcohol — na
disinfectant.
Crab shells 204, 209 na Used for making smoke (fumigation).
Lotus 55, 205, 207 Anthelmintic; bacterio- Alkaloids present in leaves, carpels, and rhizomes;
static; antifungal; sticki- rhizomes of lotus showed antifungal activity against
ness in rhizosphere mud. Aspergillus niger, Trichoderma viride, and Penicillium
spp.; stickiness due to a high viscosity
exopolysaccharide, comparable to xanthan, pro-
duced by Azotobacter vinelandii present in the
rhizosphere of the rhizomes of lotus.
Vidari (Indian kudzu) 206 Antifungal. Antifungal properties reported from tubers.
Sugar 206, 207 na na
Nagajivha (red arsenic) 206 Biocide. Used to revive trees struck by lightning.
Nyagrodha (Ficus 210 Latex with good sealing Possibly to ensure sticking of pastes for long
benghalensis) property; tannin. periods, when applied over wounds.
Dhava (Anogeissus latifolia) 211 Produces gum and contains A timber tree often used in making bullock carts,
tannins and glycosides. plows, etc.; bark contains 12–18% tannins and is bit-
ter and astringent; gum is dessicant.
Sriparnika (Myrica esculenta) 211 Bark contains tannins, Lotion from bark is used for washing putrid sores;
glycosides; antiseptic; pisci- piscicidal properties used by people of Khasi hills
cidal; fruits produce wax. in eastern India.
Syama (Ichnocarpus 211 na The bark of the creeper yields a good fibre; roots have
frutescens) medicinal properties.
Vetasa (Salix caprea) 211 Flavonoids in wood; Flavonoids are reported to be inhibitors of wood-
tannins in bark; glycosides destroying fungi; tannin 8–13% in the bark; callus
present; antibacterial. in tissue culture showed antibacterial properties.
Arjuna (Terminalia arjuna) 211 Bark reported to be May have antimicrobial properties.
antidysenteric; twigs used
to cure mouth ulcers; fruits
contain tannin.
Barley/wheat 213, 215, 216–217 na Powder (flour) recommended for use. Could there
be release of their products after slow hybrolysis?
Or could it be used as spreader/sticker?
continued
87

Table 2. continued

Materials recommended | Verse number(s) | Constituents/properties reported¹ | Additional information

Kulattha (Macrotyloma uniflorum = Dolichos biflorus), black gram (Vigna mungo), and green gram (V. radiata) | 215 | na | Powder (flour) recommended for use. Could there be release of their products after slow hydrolysis? Or could it be used as spreader/sticker?
Goat/sheep dung | 216–217 | na | na
Tiger/leopard/fox flesh and elephant milk | 218 | na | Seems like an impractical task for any farmer even in those times.
Bones of cow and dog mixed with excreta of cat | 220 | na | Burning these materials together to smoke cucurbits to "cure" various diseases. Fumigating effect cannot be explained unless tested.
Brhati (Solanum indicum) | 53, 55 | na | na
Jaggery | 57 | na | Known to possess sticking property.

1. Information on chemical constituents obtained from the Wealth of India (CSIR, India) and world literature search (1986–95). Readers should feel free to contact the commentator if they wish to know specific references.
2. na = Information not available or inability to interpret.

• Lastly, a verse, not related to plant protection, caught my attention because the contents of the verse reveal the ground truth for human civilization. Verse 44 states that if wealth, destiny, and king were favorable,
any tree could grow anywhere with special effort. If we interpret wealth as resources, destiny as luck, and king as government and its policies, we should be able to produce enough food for the increasing population!
88

Plant Index

Figures indicate verse numbers in the section "The Science of
Plant Life" in the English translation of Surapala's
Vrikshayurveda. Authors of scientific names of three plant
species (asmapa, asvakarna, and birbhati) are not available.
abhaya (haritaki) (Terminalia chebula Retz., chebulic myrobalan;
T. citrina Roxb. ex Flem.) 254–258
alambu(ka) (Cucurbita maxima Duch., squash, pumpkin, red
gourd) 69, 155, 156
alukanda (Dioscorea sp.) 51
amalaka(ki) (Phyllanthus emblica Linn., syn. Emblica officinalis
Gaertn., emblic myrobalan, Indian gooseberry) 23, 299 (also
see dhatri)
amra (Mangifera indica Linn., mango) 16, 23, 43, 48–49, 87, 123,
232, 241, 323 (also see makanda—mango)
amrata (amralata) (Spondias pinnata (Linn. f.) Kurz, wild
mango) 41, 132, 259–260
anjana (translated by some as Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight
& Arn.; collyrium, black pigment, extract of Amomum
xanthioides Wall. ex Baker, wild Siamese cardamom) 241, 299
ankola (see ankolha)
ankolha (Alangium lamarckii Thw., syn. A. salviifolium (Linn.
f.) Wang.) 123, 143, 246, 277, 278, 281, 291–292
ardra(ka) (Zingiber officinale Rosc., ginger) 51
arjuna (Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight & Arn., arjun) 30, 116,
211, 273, 276, 277, 323 (also see nara)
asana (Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth, laurel) 244
ash gourd (see kusmanda)
asita (Indigofera tinctoria Linn., indigo) 315 (also see nili)
asmapa (Coleus scutellarioides) 254–258 (see notes)
asoka (Saraca asoca (Roxb.) De Wilde, ashoka) 42, 92, 149, 233
asphota (Clitoria ternatea Linn.) 254–258
asvaghna (Zanthoxylum limonella (Dennst.) Alston) 236
asvakarna (Vatica robusta) 322
asvattha (Ficus religiosa Linn., peepal, sacred fig) 11, 23, 26,
320 (also see pippala)
atimukta(ka) (Hiptage benghalensis (Linn.) Kurz, clustered
hiptage) 43, 254–258, 293 (also see madhavi)
ativisa (Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle, atis root) 194
badari (badara) (Ziziphus mauritiana Lam., Indian jujube,
common jujube) 29, 48–49, 93, 135, 308, 309 (also see kola
and sauvira)
bakula (Mimusops elengi Linn., bulletwood) 56, 87, 147, 245,
250 (also see kesara)
bamboo (see vamsa)
banyan (see vata)
barley (see yava)
betel nut (Areca catechu Linn., areca nut) 124 (also see puga)
bhallataka (Semecarpus anacardium Linn. f., marking nut tree)
91, 195, 323
bhillata (see bhallataka)
bhillota (see bhallataka)
bibhitaka (Terminalia bellirica Roxb., belliric myrobalan) 312
bidanga (Embelia ribes Burm. f.) 52, 54, 83, 100, 116, 119, 125,
142, 229, 237, 254–258 (also see vidanga)
bijapuraka (Citrus limon (Linn.) Burm. f., lemon) 29, 43, 141
bilva (Aegle marmelos Correa ex Roxb., bael, Bengal quince)
10, 23, 48–49, 134, 137, 142 (also see sriphala)
89

birbhati (Cirbhata cucumus) 155
black gram (Vigna mungo (Linn.) Hepper) 63, 104, 125, 126,
139, 142, 215, 253, 254–258, 321
breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosb.) 127
brhati (Solanum indicum Linn., poison berry) 53, 55, 236
brinjal (see vartaka)
camphor (Cinnamomum camphora (Linn.) Nees & Eberm.) 143
cane 302
cardamom (see ela)
castor (see eranda)
champaka (Michelia champaca Linn., champak, golden
champa) 38, 43, 48–49, 245
cincini (Tamarindus indica Linn., tamarind) 23, 48–49, 253
coconut (see narikela)
cotton (Gossypium spp.) 154, 239, 274
cucumber (see trapusa and urvaru)
cumin (Cuminum cyminum Linn.) 230–231
dadima (dadimba) (Punica granatum Linn., pomegranate) 43,
69, 79–80, 280, 283 (also see dadimi)
dadimi (Punica granatum Linn., pomegranate) 20, 29, 50, 87,
128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 246, 266 (also see dadima)
damanaka (Artemisia vulgaris Linn., mugwort) 71
darada (vermilion; Solanum melongena Linn., eggplant, brinjal)
240 (also see vartaka)
date (see kharjura)
dhanyaka (Coriandrum sativum Linn., coriander) 88
dhataki (Woodfordia fruticosa Kurz, fire-flame bush) 259–260
dhatri (Phyllanthus emblica Linn., syn. Emblica officinalis Gaertn.,
emblic myrobalan, Indian gooseberry) 12, 93, 135, 254–258
(also see amalaka)
90
dhava (dhaura) (Anogeissus latifolia Wall. ex Bedd., ghatti,
button tree) 211
ela (sthula—Amomum subulatum Roxb., Nepal cardamom;
suksma—Elettaria cardamomum Maton, cardamom) 51, 146
eranda (Ricinus communis Linn., castor) 30, 247
gale (Myrica sp.) 277, 278, 279, 281, 289, 291–292
ganikarika (Premna serratifolia Linn., syn. P. integrifolia Linn.;
Clerodendrum phlomoides Linn. f.) 187
golla (gola?) (Meyna laxiflora Robyns) 88
gourd (see kusmanda and patola)
grape (see mrdvi)
grass (plant of the family Gramineae) 60, 115
green gram (Vigna radiata (Linn.) Wilczek, mung bean) 215,
321
haridra (nisa, rajani) (Curcuma longa Linn., turmeric) 32, 116,
142, 239, 242, 243, 244, 253
hastikarna (name of various plants—Ricinus communis Linn.
(castor), Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze (bastard teak),
Arum sp.) 322
hemp (Cannabis sativa Linn., hemp; Crotalaria juncea Linn., sunn
hemp) 186
hingu (Ferula assa-foetida Linn., asafoetida) 275 (also see
ramatha)
indigo (see nili)
jackfruit (see panasa)
jalada (Cyperus rotundus Linn., nut grass) 248 (also see musta)
jalini (Luffa acutangula (Linn.) Roxb., ridge gourd) 143 (also
see rajakosa)
jambeera (Premna herbacea Roxb.; it could be Citrus limon
(Linn.) Burm. f., lemon) 41
jambu (Syzygium cuminii (Linn.) Skeels, black plum, Java
plum) 21, 41, 48–49, 56, 135, 232, 304, 321

jantu (Ficus glomerata Roxb., country fig, cluster fig) 145 (also
see udumbara)
jasmine (Jasminum multiflorum (Burm. f.) Andr., downy
jasmine; J. officinale Linn., common jasmine) 38, 259–260 (also
see kunda)
jira (see cumin)
kadali (Musa paradisiaca Linn., banana, plantain) 29, 41,
74–75, 82, 89, 117, 138, 160, 246, 270, 271, 272, 275, 297, 322
(also see rambha)
kadamba (Anthocephalus cadamba Miq.) 41, 144
kakaraka (Momordica charantia Linn., bitter gourd) 89 (also
see karavella and karkaru)
kalaaya (durva) (a kind of plant with dark colored flowers;
durva—Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers., Bermuda grass) 245
kalaya (pulse, edible seeds of leguminous crops) 143
kamala (Citrus reticulata Blanco, mandarin orange) 127
kancanara (Bauhinia variegata Linn.) 30 (also see kovidara)
kapittha (Limonia acidissima Linn., syn. Feronia limonia (Linn.)
Swingle, wood apple) 23, 48–49, 93, 137, 254–258, 324
karamarda(ka) (Carissa carandas Linn., caranda) 48–49, 93
karanja (Pongamia pinnata Pierre, Indian beech) 30
karavella (Momordica charantia Linn., bitter gourd) 247 (also
see kakaraka and karkaru)
karavira (Nerium indicum Mill., Indian oleander) 50, 79–80,
152, 251, 252, 266, 289
karikesaraka (Mesua ferrea Linn., ironwood tree, cobra's
saffron) 144 (also see nagakesara)
kari(ra) (Capparis decidua Edgew.) 42
karkandhu(ka) (Ziziphus oenoplia Mill., jackal jujube) 42, 135
karkaru (Momordica charantia Linn., bitter gourd) 155 (also see
kakaraka and karavella)
kasa (Saccharum spontaneum Linn.) 138, 318
kasisa (green sulphate of iron; Moringa oleifera Lam., drumstick
tree; kasis—Cornus macrophylla Wall.) 244
kastha (Curcuma xanthorrhiza Roxb.) 310
kataka (Strychnos potatorum Linn., clearing nut tree) 124, 299
kesara (Mimusops elengi Linn., bulletwood) 42 (also see bakula)
ketaki (Pandanus odoratissimus Linn. f., screw pine) 41, 146,
147
khadira (Acacia catechu Willd., catechu) 323
kharjura(ri) (Phoenix sylvestris Roxb., date) 41, 124, 127
khus (Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash, vetiver) 145, 232, 299
kimsuka (Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze, bastard teak) 239,
242, 276 (also see palasa)
kola (Ziziphus mauritiana Lam., Indian jujube, common jujube)
134 (also see badari and sauvira)
kosataka (mahakosataki?) (Luffa aegyptiaca Mill. ex Ho-ok) 299
kovidara (Bauhinia variegata Linn.) 315 (also see kancanara)
ksirika (Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard) 56, 87, 144 (also
see ksirindika and ksirini)
ksirindika (could be ksirika—Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.)
Dubard) 144 (also see ksirika and ksirini)
ksirini (Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard) 20, 31 (also see
ksirika and ksirindika)
kulattha (a kind of pulse; Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.)
Verdcourt, syn. Dolichos biflorus Linn., horse gram) 215, 276
kumbhakari (guggulu) (Commiphora mukul (Hook. ex Stocks)
Engl., Indian bdellium) 48–49
kumkuma (Crocus sativus Linn., saffron) 51, 71, 314
kumuda (Nymphaea alba Linn., white water lily) 292
kunda (Jasminum multiflorum (Burm. f.) Andr., downy jasmine)
50 (also see jasmine)
kurabaka (Barleria prionitis Linn.) 150 (also see kuranta)
91

kuranta (karunta) (Barleria prionitis Linn.) 152 (also see kurabaka)
kusa (Desmostachya bipinnata (Linn.) Stapf) 315, 318
kusmanda (Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn., ash gourd, white
gourd) 69, 234, 275, 285–286, 287–288
kusta (Saussurea lappa C.B. Clarke, costus) 194, 243, 250
lakuca (Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb.) 41, 87, 135
langali (Gloriosa superba Linn., superb lily) 236
lodhra (Symplocos racemosa Roxb.) 135, 239, 244
lotus 1, 38, 55, 83, 149, 150, 205, 207, 235, 265, 290, 295, 311, 316
(also see kumuda, padma, and utpala)
madhavi (Hiptage benghalensis (Linn.) Kurz, clustered hiptage)
152, 259–260 (also see atimukta)
madhuka (Madhuca indica J.F. Gmel., Indian butter tree) 19,
48–49, 143, 191, 235, 238, 321
madhukarkata (Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merrill, pummelo) 282
makanda (manakanda) (Alocasia indica (Roxb.) Schott) 56, 69,
148
makanda (Mangifera indica Linn., mango) 227 (also see amra)
malli(ka) (Jasminum sambac (Linn.) Ait., Arabian jasmine) 50,
153
mango (see amra and makanda)
manjista (Rubia cordifolia Linn., Indian madder) 239, 240, 242
maruvaka (Origanum majorana Linn., common marjoram) 71,
73 (also see phanijjhaka)
matulungi (Citrus medica Linn., citron) 140
mrdvi(ka) (draksa) (Vitis vinifera Linn., grape) 41, 122, 238
mulaka (Raphanus sativus Linn., radish) 88, 284
munj (Saccharum bengalense Retz.) 318
mura (Erythrina stricta Roxb.) 248, 249
musta (Cyperus rotundus Linn., nut grass) 145, 249, 299 (also
see jalada)
mustard (Brassica nigra Koch, black mustard) 52, 53, 55, 142,
198
naga (sometimes used instead of nagajihva—Hemidesmus
indicus R. Br., Indian sarsaparilla) 250, 299, 324
nagakesara (Mesua ferrea Linn., ironwood tree, cobra's saffron)
48–49 (also see karikesaraka)
nara (arjuna) (Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight & Arn., arjun)
277 (also see arjuna)
naranga (narangika) (Citrus sinensis (Linn.) Osbeck, sweet
orange) 72, 141, 142
narikela (Cocos nucifera Linn., coconut) 41, 124, 125, 126, 274,
277, 278, 279, 281, 283, 289, 291–292
nata (Valeriana wallichii DC.) 248, 249 (also see tagara)
neem (see nimba and picumanda)
nicula (Barringtonia acutangula Gaertn.) 118, 324
nili (Indigofera tinctoria Linn., indigo) 32, 241, 243, 244, (also
see asita)
nimba (Azadirachta indica A. Juss., margosa tree, neem) 14, 42,
92, 139, 274 (also see picumanda)
nirgundi (Scirpus grossus Linn. f.) 306
nyagrodha (Ficus benghalensis Linn., banyan) 23, 24, 26, 210,
320 (also see vata)
orange (see naranga)
padma (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn., sacred lotus) 51, 290
palasa (Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze, bastard teak) 17, 309
(also see kimsuka)
palasini (probably same as palasin (prasarini); a species of tree
(ksiravrksa)) 254–258
palm (tree or shrub of the family Palmae) 124, 323
panasa (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam., jackfruit) 20, 41, 48–49,
56, 133
92

paravata (Cicca acida (Linn.) Merr., country gooseberry) 93,
139
patala (Stereospermum suaveolens DC.) 50, 153, 187, 322
patola(ka) (Trichosanthes dioica Roxb., pointed gourd) 89, 157,
234
patraka (Cinnamomum tamala Nees & Eberm., Indian cassia)
248 (also see tamala)
payasya (name used for several plants; Gynandropsis gynandra
(Linn.) Briq.) 273
pea (Pisum sativum Linn.) 135
phalini (Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl) 92 (also see priyangu)
phanijjaka (Origanum majorana Linn., common marjoram)
73, 88 (also see maruvaka)
picumanda (Azadirachta indica A. Juss., margosa tree, neem)
23, 287–288, 324 (also see nimba)
pippala (Ficus religiosa Linn., peepal, sacred fig) 24 (also see
asvattha)
plaksa (Ficus lacor Buch.-Ham.) 15, 25, 26, 50, 200–201
plantain (see kadali)
pointed gourd (see patola)
pomegranate (see dadima and dadimi)
priyala (Buchanania lanzan Spreng.) 20
priyangu (Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl) 43, 48–49 (also see
phalini)
pugu (Areca catechu Linn., areca nut, betel nut) 65 (also see
betel nut)
pumpkin (see alambu)
punnaga (Calophyllum inophyllum Linn., Alexandrian laurel)
43, 48–49, 92, 250
rajakosa (rajakoshataki) (Luffa acutangula (Linn.) Roxb., ridge
gourd) 87 (also see jalini)
ramatha (Ferula assa-foetida Linn., asafoetida) 195 (also see hingu)
rambha (Musa paradisiaca Linn., banana, plantain) 20 (also see
kadali)
rasona (Allium sativum Linn., garlic) 51
rice (Oryza sativa Linn.) 74–75, 135, 139, 140, 156, 159,
200–201, 274, 320 (also see sastika)
saffron (see kumkuma)
saka (Tectona grandis Linn. f., teak) 42
salmali (Bombax malabaricum DC., silkcotton tree) 243
sami (Prosopis cineraria Druce) 42, 323
saptachhada (Alstonia scholaris R. Br.) 154 (also see saptaparna)
saptaparna (Alstonia scholaris R. Br.) 42, 321 (also see
saptachhada)
sarvatobhadra (Gmelina arborea Roxb.) 187
sastika (rice variety that matures in 60 days) 74–75, 320 (also
see rice)
satapatrika (Rosa centifolia Linn., cabbage rose) 77, 88
sauvira (Zizyphus mauritiana Lam., Indian jujube, common
jujube) 144 (also see badari and kola)
sephali(ka) (Vitex negundo Linn., east Indian walnut) 42, 154
(also see sinduvara)
sesame (see tila)
simsapa (Dalbergia sissoo Roxb., sissoo) 254–258
sinduvara (Vitex negundo Linn., east Indian walnut) 48–49 (also
see sephalika)
sirisa (Albizia lebbek Benth.) 92, 321
slesmata(ka) (Cordia wallichii G. Don) 30, 279, 291–292
sobhanjana (Moringa oleifera Lam., drumstick tree) 42
sriparnika (Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham., syn. M. nagi, box
myrtle) 211
sriphala (Aegle marmelos Correa ex Roxb., bael, Bengal quince)
42, 187 (also see bilva)
93

sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum Linn.) 229, 230–231
suryavalli (suryaparni ?) (Teramnus labialis Spreng.) 254–258
syama (Ichnocarpus frutescens R. Br.) 144, 151, 211
syonaka (Oroxylum indicum Vent.) 187
tagara (Valeriana wallichii DC.) 48–49 (also see nata)
tamala (Cinnamomum tamala Nees & Eberm., Indian cassia)
74–75 (also see patraka)
tamarind (see cincini)
tambuli (Piper betle Linn., betel) 48–49
tala (Borassus flabellifer Linn., palmyra palm) 41
tarquari (Clerodendrum phlomoides Linn. f.) 273, 276
tila(ka) (Sesamum indicum Linn., sesame) 41, 53, 55, 63, 100,
104, 107, 124, 125, 134, 135, 140, 142, 144, 150, 154, 188, 196,
198, 206, 207, 215, 216–217, 242, 244, 253, 254–258, 259–260,
321
tinduka (Diospyros tomentosa Roxb., ebony persimmon; D.
peregrina (Gaertn.) Gurke, gaub persimmon) 139, 320
tinisa (Ougeinia dalbergioides Benth., sandan) 41
trapusa (Cucumis sativus Linn., common cucumber) 70, 155,
220, 285–286 (also see urvaru)
triphala (the three kinds of myrobalan—Terminalia chebula
Retz. (chebulic myrobalan), T. bellirica Roxb. (belliric
myrobalan), and Phyllanthus emblica Linn., syn. Emblica
officinalis Gaetrn. (emblic myrobalan, Indian gooseberry))
130, 133, 192, 241, 243, 244, 253, 283 (also see vara)
tulasi (Ocimum sanctum Linn., sacred basil) 9
turmeric (see haridra)
tuta (Morus alba Linn., white mulberry) 87
udumbara (Ficus glomerata Roxb., country fig, cluster fig) 18,
24, 26, 50, 200–201, 210, 310 (also see jantu)
urvaru (Cucumis sativus Linn., common cucumber) 57, 275 (also
see trapusa)
usana (Piper nigrum Linn., black pepper) 195
utpala (Nymphaea stellata Willd., Indian blue water lily, blue
lotus) 51, 289, 290, 295
vaca (Zingiber zerumbet Rosc. ex Smith) 194, 195, 254–258
valaka (Marsilea minuta Linn.) 248
vamsa (Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd., bamboo) 41, 93
vara (the three kinds of myrobalan—Terminalia chebula Retz.
(chebulic myrobalan), T. bellirica Roxb. (belliric myrobalan),
and Phyllanthus emblica Linn., syn. Emblica officinalis Gaetrn.
(emblic myrobalan, Indian gooseberry)) 244 (also see
triphala)
varahi (Dioscorea bulbifera Linn., potato yam) 230–231
vartaka (Solanum melongena Linn., egg plant, brinjal) 88, 234,
287–288 (also see darada)
vata (Ficus benghalensis Linn., banyan) 13, 41, 50 (also see
nyagrodha)
vetasa (Salix caprea Linn., goat willow) 211, 254–258
vidanga (Embelia ribes Burm. f.) 195, 196, 198, 212, 219 (also
see bidanga)
vidari (Pueraria tuberosa DC., Indian kudzu) 206
wheat (Triticum aestivum Linn.) 213, 321
white mustard (Synapis alba Linn., syn. Brassica alba Boiss.)
116, 117, 127, 188, 194, 195, 196
yasti (Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn., licorice) 235, 237, 238, 244 (also
see yastimadhuka)
yastimadhu(ka) (Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn., licorice) 134, 191
(also see yasti)
yava (Hordeum vulgare Linn., barley) 126, 127, 135, 213, 215,
216–217, 237, 238, 241, 242, 253, 254–258, 259–260, 320, 321
yuthi (Jasminum auriculatum Vahl) 154
94

About Asian Agri-History Foundation
The Asian Agri-History Foundation (AAHF), a non-profit trust, was established and registered in 1994 to
facilitate dissemination of information on agricultural history to promote research on sustainable agriculture
in the South and Southeast Asia region. This region had generally provided food security to its population
for several millennia, with only occasional famines in a few limited pockets (due primarily to drought).
Farmers in the region had evolved some of the most sustainable agricultural management technologies
suitable for different agroecoregions. The trustees of AAHF believe that there is great deal to be learnt
from the traditional wisdom and the indigenous, time-tested technologies that have sustained the farmers
of South and Southeast Asia in the past. The historical perspective of gradual development of traditional
technologies will provide clues for (i) understanding how farmers adjusted to changing environment in
the past, and (ii) developing appropriate technologies leading to prosperous, sustainable agriculture. The
objectives of AAHF are (i) to disseminate information on the history of agriculture in the South and
Southeast Asia region, and (ii) to stimulate interest in research on the history of agriculture in Asia with a
special focus on South and Southeast Asia.