वेदों की प्राचीनता एवं काल-निर्णय / ओरायन (लोकमान्य बाल गंगाधर तिलक - खगोलीय वैदिक शोध)

MONTHS AND SEASONS. 171
his decayed power in the winter. But with the expression
"like the sun dwelling in darkness" before us, in the legend of
Vandana (I, 117, 5), we must make these legends refer not
merely to the decayed power of the sun in winter, but to his
actual sinking below the horizon for some time. Bearing this
in mind, let us try to see what inference we can deduce, so far
as the subject in hand is concerned, from the legend of
Dîrghatamas.
The statement in the myth or legend, which is most im-
portant for our purpose, is contained in I, 158, 6. The verse
may be literally translated as follows:—"Dîrghatamas, the son
of Mamatâ, having grown decrepit in the tenth yuga, becomes
a Brahman charioteer of the waters wending to their goal."*
The only expressions which require elucidation in this verse
are "in the tenth yuga" and "waters wending to their goal."
Otherwise the story is plain enough. Dîrghatamas grows old
in the tenth yuga, and riding on waters, as the Mahâbhârata story
has it, goes along with them to the place which is the goal of
these waters. But scholars are not agreed as to what yuga
means. Some take it to mean a cycle of years, presumably
five as in the Vedânga-Jyotiṣha, and invest Dîrghatamas with
infirmity at the age of fifty. The Petersburg Lexicon would
interpret yuga, wherever it occurs in the Ṛig-Veda, to mean
not 'a period of time,' but 'a generation,' or 'the relation
of descent from a common stock'; and it is followed by
Grassmann in this respect. According to these scholars the
phrase "in the tenth yuga" in the above verse would,
therefore, signify "in the tenth generation" whatever that
may mean. Indeed, there seems to be a kind of prejudice
against interpreting yuga as meaning 'a period of time' in
the Ṛig-Veda, and it is, therefore, necessary to examine the

• Ṛig. I, 158, 6— दीर्घतमा मामतेयो जुजुर्वान् दशमे युगे । अपामर्थं
  यतीनां ब्रह्मा भवति सारथिः ॥

172 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
point at some length in this place. That the word yuga by
itself means 'a period of time,' or that, at any rate, it is one of
its meanings goes without saying. Even the Petersburg
Lexicon assigns this meaning to yuga in the Atharva Veda
VIII, 2, 21 ; but so far as the Ṛig-Veda is concerned yuga,
according to it, must mean 'descent,' or 'generation,' or some-
thing like it, but never 'a period of time.' This is especially
the case with the phrase Mânuṣhâ yugâ, or Manuṣhyâ yugâni,
which occurs several times in the Ṛig-Veda. Western scho-
lars would everywhere translate it to mean 'generations of
men,' while native scholars, like Sâyaṇa and Mahîdhara, take
it to refer to 'mortal ages' in a majority of places. In some
cases (I, 124, 2 ; I, 144, 4) Sayâṇa, however, suggests, as an
alternative, that the phrase may be understood to mean 'con-
junction' or 'couples (yuga) of men' : and this has probably given
rise to the interpretation put upon the phrase by Western
scholars. Etymologically the word yuga may mean 'conjunc-
tion' or 'a couple,' denoting either (1) 'a couple of day and night,'
or (2) 'a couple of months,' i.e. 'a season,' or (3) 'a couple of
fortnights,' or 'the time of the conjunction of the moon and
the sun,' i. e. 'a month.' Thus at the beginning of the Kali-
Yuga the planets and the sun were, it is supposed, in conjunc-
tion and hence it is said to be called a yuga. It is also possible
that the word may mean 'a conjunction, or a couple, or even
a generation of men,' Etymology, therefore, does not help
us in determining which of these meanings should be assigned to
the word yuga, or the phrase Mânuṣhâ yugâ in the Ṛig-
Veda, and we must find out some other means for
determining it. The prejudice we have referred to above,
appears to be mainly due to the disinclination of the Western
scholars to import the later Yuga theory into the Ṛig-Veda. But
it seems to me that the caution has been carried too far, so far
as almost to amount to a sort of prejudice.

MONTHS AND SEASONS. 173
Turning to the hymns of the Ṛig-Veda, we find as remark-
ed by Muir, the phrase yuge yuge used at least in half a dozen
places (III, 26, 3; VI, 15, 8; X, 94, 12, &c.), and it is interpreted
by Sâyaṇa to mean a period of time. In III, 33, 8, and X, 10, 10,
we have uttara yugáni 'later ages,' and in X, 72, 1, we read
uttare yuge 'in a later age'; whilst in the next two verses we
have the phrases Devânâm pûrvye yuge and Devânâm prathame
yuge clearly referring to the later and earlier ages of the gods.
The word Devânâm is in the plural and yuga is in the singular,
and it is not therefore possible to take the phrase to mean
'generations of gods.' The context again clearly shows that
a reference to time is intended, for the hymn speaks of the
creation and the birth of the gods in early primeval times. Now
if we interpret Devânâm yugam to mean 'an age of gods,' why
should manushyâ yugâni or mânushâ yugâ be not interpreted
to mean 'human ages,' is more than I can understand. There
are again express passages in the Ṛig-Veda where mânushâ
yugâ cannot be taken to mean 'generations of men.' Thus
in V, 52, 4, which is a hymn to Maruts, we read Vishve ye
mânushâ yugâ pânti martyam rishaḥ. Here the verb is pânti
(protect), the nominative vishve ye (all those), and the object
is martyam (the mortal man), while rishaḥ (from injury), in
the ablative, denotes the object against which the protection
is sought. So far the sentence, therefore, means "All those
who protect man from injury"; and now the question is, what
does mânushâ yugâ mean? If we take it to mean "genera-
tions of men" in the objective case it becomes superfluous, for
martyam (man) is already the object of pânti (protect). It
is, therefore, necessary to assign to mânushâ yugâ the only
other meaning we know of, viz., 'human ages' and take the
phrase as an accusative of time. Thus interpreted the whole
sentence means "All those, who protect man from injury
during human ages." No other construction is more natural

174 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
or reasonable than this; but still Prof. Max Muller translates
the verse to mean "All those who protect the generations of
men, who protect the mortal from injury,"* in spite of the fact
that this is tautological and that there is no conjunctive par-
ticle in the text (like cha) to join what according to him are the
two objects of the verb 'protect.' Mr. Griffith seems to have
perceived this difficulty, and has translated, "Who all, through
ages of mankind, guard mortal man from injury." Another
passage which is equally decisive on this point, is X, 140, 6.
The verse† is addressed to Agni, and people are said to have
put him in front to secure his blessings. It is as follows :—
Ritâvânam mahisham vishva-darshatam
agnim sumnâya, dadhire puro janâḥ
Shrut-karṇam saprathas-tamam
tvâ girâ daivyam mânushâ yugâ ॥
Here ṛitâvânam (righteous), mahisham (strong), vishva-dar-
shatam (visible to all), agnim (Agni, fire), shrut-karṇam (attentive
eared), saprathas-tamam (most widely-reaching), tvâ (thee) and
daivyam (divine) are all in the accusative case governed by
dadhire (placed), and describe the qualities of Agni. Janâḥ
(people) is the nominative and dadhire (placed) is the only verb in
the text. Sumnâya (for the welfare) denotes the purpose for which
the people placed Agni in front (puro) ; and girâ (by praises) is
the means by which the favour of Agni is to be secured. If we,
therefore, leave out the various adjectives of Agni, the verse
means, "The people have placed Agni (as described) in front for
their welfare, with praises." The only expression that remains is
mânushâ yugâ, and it can go in with other words in a natural
way only as an accusative of time. The verse would then mean

• See S. B. E. Series, Vol. XXXII, p. 312.
  † Rig. X, 140, 6,—ऋतावानं महिषं विश्वदर्शतमग्निं सुम्नाय दधिरे पुरो
  जनाः। श्रुत्कर्णं सप्रथस्तमं त्वा गिरा दैव्यं मानुषा युगा ॥

MONTHS AND SEASONS. 175
"The people have placed Agni (as described) in front for their
welfare, with praises, during human ages." But Griffith takes
yugâ to mean 'generations,' and supplying a verb of his own,
translates the last part of the verse thus: "Men's generations
magnify (Agni) with praise-songs (girâ)." This shows what straits
we are reduced to if we once make up our mind not to interpret
mânushâ yugâ to mean 'a period of time'; for the word 'magnify'
does not exist in the original. This verse also occurs in the
Vâjasaneyî Saṁhitâ (XII, 111) and Mahîdhara there explains
mânushâ yugâ to mean 'human ages' or 'periods of time' such as
fortnights. We have, therefore, at least two passages, where
mânushâ yugâ, must, according to the recognised rules of inter-
pretation, be taken to mean 'periods of time,' and not 'genera-
tions of men,' unless we are prepared to give up the natural con-
struction of the sentence. There are no more passages in the
Ṛig-Veda where mânushâ yugâ occurs in juxtapposition with
words like janâḥ or martyân, so as to leave no option as regards
the meaning to be assigned to yuga. But if the meaning of a
phrase is once definitely determined even from a single passage,
we can safely understand the phrase in the same sense in other
passages, provided the meaning does not conflict there with the
context. That is how the meaning of many a Vedic word has
been determined by scholars like Yâska, and we are not ventur-
ing on a new path in adopting the same process of reasoning in
the present case.
But if mânushâ yugâ means 'human ages' and not
'human generations,' we have still to determine the exact
duration of these ages. In the Atharva-Veda VIII, 2, 21,
which says, "We allot to thee, a hundred, ten thousand years,
two, three or four yugas," the word yuga obviously stands for
a period of time, not shorter than ten thousand years. But
there are grounds to hold that in the early days of the Ṛig-
Veda yuga must have denoted a shorter period of time,

176 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.

or, at least, that was one of its meanings in early days. The
Ṛig-Veda often speaks of 'the first' (prathamâ) dawn, or 'the first
of the coming' (âyatînâm prathamâ) dawns, (Ṛig. I, 113, 8; 123, 2;
VII, 76, 6; X, 35, 4); while 'the last' (avamâ) dawn is mentioned
in VII, 71, 3, and the dawn is said to have 'the knowledge of the
first day' in I, 123, 9. Now, independently of what I have said
before about the Vedic dawns, the ordinal numeral 'first' as-
applied to the dawn is intelligible only if we suppose it to refer
to the first dawn of the year, or the dawn on the first day
of the year, somewhat like the phrase 'first night' (prathamâ
râtriḥ) used in the Brâhmaṇas (see Orion, p. 67). The 'first'
(prathamâ) and the 'last' (avamâ) dawn must, therefore, be-
taken to signify the beginning and the end of the year in
those days; and in the light of what has been said about
the nature of the Vedic dawns in the fifth chapter, we may
safely conclude that the 'first' of the dawns was no other
than the first of a set or group of dawns that appeared at the-
close of the long night and commenced the year. Now this
'first dawn' is described as "wearing out human ages"
(praminatî manushyâ yugâni) in I, 124, 2, and I, 92, 11;
while in I, 115, 2, we are told that "the pious or godly men
extend the yugas" on the appearance of the dawn (yatra
naro devayanto yugâni vitanvate). European scholars inter-
pret yuga in the above passages to mean 'generations of
men.' But apart from the fact that the phrase mânusha
yugâ must be understood to mean 'human ages' in at least
two passages discussed above, the context in I, 124, 2 and I,
92, 11 is obviously in favour of interpreting the word yuga, oc-
curring therein, as equivalent to a period of time. The dawn
is here described as commencing a new course of heaven-
ly ordinances, or holy sacrifices (daivyani vratâni), and set-
ting in motion the manushyâ yugâni, obviously implying
that with the first dawn came the sacrifices, as well as the

cycle of time known as 'human ages,' or that 'the human ages'
were reckoned from the first dawn. This association of mânushâ
yugâ, or 'human ages,' with the 'first dawn' at once enables us to
definitely determine the length or duration of 'human ages'; for
if these ages (yugas) commenced with ths first dawn of the year,
they must have ended on the last (avamâ) dawn of the year.
In other words mânushâ yugâ collectively denoted the whole
period of time between the first and the last dawn of the year,
while a single yuga denoted a shorter division of this period.
Apart from the legend of Dîrghatamas, we have, therefore,
sufficient evidence in the Ṛig-Veda to hold that the word yuga
was used to denote a period of time, shorter than one year, and
that the phrase mânushâ yugâ meant 'human ages,' or 'the period
of time between the first and the last dawn of year,' and not 'hu-
man generations.' The statement that "Dîrghatamas grew old
in the tenth yuga" is now not only easy to understand, but it
enables us to determine, still more definitely, the meaning of
yuga in the days of the Ṛig-Veda. For, if yuga was a part of
mânushâ yugâ, that is, of the period between the first and the
last dawn of the year, and the legend of Dîrghatamas a solar
legend, the statement that "Dîrghatamas grew old in the tenth
yuga" can only mean that 'the sun grew old in the tenth month.'
In other words, ten yugas were supposed to intervene between
the first and the last dawn, or the two termini, of the year; and
as ten days or ten fortnights would be too short, and ten seasons
too long a period of time to lie between these limits, the
word yuga in the phrase dashame yuge, must be interpreted
to mean 'a month' and nothing else. In short, Dîrghatamas
was the sun that grew old in the tenth month, and
riding on the aerial waters was borne by them to their goal,
that is, to the ocean (VII, 49, 2) below the horizon. The
waters here referred to are, in fact, the same over which

178 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
the king Varuṇa is said to rule, or which flow by his commands,
or for which he is said to have dug out a channel (VII, 49, 1-4 ;
II, 28, 4 ; VII, 87, 1) and so cut out a path for Sûrya, and which
being released by Indra from the grasp of Vṛitra, bring on the sun
(I, 51, 4). Prof. Max Muller, in his Contributions to the Science of
Mythology (Vol. II, pp. 583-598), has shown that most of the
achievements of the Ashvins can be rationally explained by taking
them as referring to the decaying sun. The legend of Dîrgha-
tamas is thus only a mythical representation of the Arctic sun, who
ascends above the 'bright ocean' (VII, 60, 4), becomes visible for
mânushâ yugâ, or ten months, and then drops again into the ne-
ther waters. What these waters are and how their nature has
been long misunderstood will be fufther explained in a subsequent
chapter, when we come to the discussion of Vedic myths.
Suffice it to say for the present that the legend of Dîrghatamas,
interpreted as above, is in full accord with the legend of the
Dashagvas, who are described as holding their sacrificial session
only for ten months.
I have discussed here the meaning of yuga and mânushâ
yugâ at some length, because the phrases have been
much misunderstood, in spite of clear passages shewing that
'a period of time' was intended to be denoted by them. These
passages (V, 52, 4 ; X, 140, 6) establish the fact that mânushâ yugâ
denoted 'human ages,' and the association of these ages with the
'first dawn' (I, 124, 2 ; I, 115, 2) further shews that the length of
a yuga was regarded to be shorter than a year. The mention of
the tenth yuga finally settles the meaning of yuga as 'one month.'
That is how I have arrived at the meaning of these phrases, and
I am glad to find that I have been anticipated in my conclusions
by Prof. Rangâchârya, of Madras, on different grounds. In his es-
say on the yugas,* he discusses the root meaning of yuga, and,

• The Yugas, or a Question of Hindu Chronology and History, p. 19.

MONTHS AND SEASONS. 179
taking it to denote 'a conjunction,' observes as follows, "The
phases of the moon being so readily observable, it is pro-
bable that, as suggested by Professor Weber, the idea of a
period of time known as a yuga and depending upon a conjunc-
tion of certain heavenly bodies, was originally derived from
a knowledge of these phases. The Professor (Weber) further
strengthens his supposition by referring to a passage cited in
the Shaḍviṁsha Brâhmaṇa (IV, 6)* wherein the four yugas
are still designated by their more ancient names, and are con-
nected with the four lunar phases to which they evidently owe
their origin." Mr. Rangâchârya then refers to darsha, the
ancient name for the conjunction of the sun and moon, and con-
cludes, "There is also old mythological or other evidence
which leads us to conclude that our forefathers observed many
other kinds of interesting celestial conjunctions; and in all pro-
bability the earliest conception of a yuga meant the period
from new moon to new moon," that is, one lunar month. The
passage stating that it was the first dawn that set the cycle of
mânushâ yuga in motion is already quoted above; and if we
compare this statement with Ṛig. X, 138, 6, where Indra after
killing Vṛitra and producing the dawn and the sun, is said
"to have set the ordering of the months in the sky," it will
be further evident that the cycle of time which began with
the first dawn was a cycle of months. We may, therefore,
safely conclude that mânushâ yugâ represented, in early days,
a cycle of months during which the sun was above the horizon,
or rather that period of sunshine and action when the ances-
tors of the Aryan race held their sacrificial sessions or
performed other religious and social ceremonies.
There are many other passages in the Ṛig-Veda which
support the same view. But mânushâ yugâ being everywhere

• पुष्ये (कलौ) चानुमतिर्ज्ञेया सिनीवालीति द्वापरे। शार्वायां (त्रेतायां)
  तु भवेद्राका कृतपर्वे कुहुर्भवेत् ॥

180 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
interpreted by Western scholars to mean 'human generations
or tribes,' the real meaning of these passages has become
obscure and unintelligible. Thus in VIII, 46, 12, we have
"All (sacrificers), with ladles lifted, invoke that mighty
Indra for mānuṣhā yugā"; and the meaning evidently is that
Soma libations were offered to Indra during the period of human
ages. But taking mānuṣhā yugā to denote 'human tribes,'
Griffith translates "All races of mankind invoke &c.," a ren-
dering, which, though intelligible, does not convey the spirit
of the original. Similarly, Agni is said to shine during
'human ages' in VII, 9, 4. But there too the meaning
'human tribes' is unnecessarily foisted upon the phrase.
The most striking illustration of the impropriety of interpreting
yuga to mean 'a generation' is, however, furnished by Ṛig. II,
2, 2. Here Agni is said to shine for mānuṣhā yugā and kṣhapāḥ.
Now kṣhapāḥ means 'nights' and the most natural interpre-
tation would be to take mānuṣhā yugā and kṣhapāḥ as allied ex-
pressions denoting a period of time. The verse will then mean:—
"O Agni! thou shinest during human ages and nights." It is
necessary to mention 'nights,' because though mānuṣhā yugā
is a period of sunshine, including a long day and a succession
of ordinary days and nights, yet the long or the continuous
night which followed mānuṣhā yugā could not have been in-
cluded in the latter phrase. Therefore, when the whole period
of the solar year was intended, a compound expression like
"mānuṣhā yugā and the continuous nights" was necessary,
and that is the meaning of the phrase in II, 2, 2. But Prof.
Oldenberg, * following Max Muller, translates as follows, "O
Agni! thou shinest on human tribes, on continuous nights." Here,
in the first place, it is difficult to understand what 'shining on
human tribes' means; and secondly if kṣhapāḥ means continuous

• See S. B. E. Series Vol. XLVI, pp. 193, 195.

MONTHS AND SEASONS. 181
nights', it could mean nothing except 'the long continuous
night,' and if so, why not take mânushâ yugâ to represent the
period of the solar year, which remains after the long night is
excluded from it ? As observed by me before, Prof. Max Muller
has correctly translated kṣhapaḥ by 'continuous nights,' but has
missed the true meaning of the expression mânushâ yugâ in this
place. A similar mistake has been committed with respect to IV,
16, 19, where the expression is kṣhapaḥ madema śaradas cha
pûrvîḥ. Here, in spite of the accent, Max Muller takes kṣhapaḥ
as accusative and so does Sâyaṇa. But Sâyaṇa correctly inter-
prets the expression as 'May we rejoice for many autumns
(seasons) and nights.' 'Seasons and nights' is a compound
phrase, and the particle cha becomes unmeaning if we split it up
and take nights (kṣhapaḥ) with one verb, and seasons (śaradaḥ)
with another. Of course so long as the Arctic theory was
unknown the phrase 'seasons and nights' or 'mânushâ yugâ and
nights' was unintelligible, inasmuch as nights were included in
the seasons or the yugas. But Prof. Max Muller has himself
suggested the solution of the difficulty by interpreting kṣhapaḥ
as 'continuous nights' in II. 2, 2; and adopting this rendering,
we can, with greater propriety, take seasons and nights together,
as indicated by the particle cha, and understand the expression
to mean a complete solar year including the long night. The
addition of kṣhapaḥ to mânushâ yugâ, therefore, further supports
the conclusion that the phrase indicated a period of sunshine as
stated above. There are many other passages in translating which
unnecessary confusion or obscurity has been caused by taking
mânushâ yugâ to mean human tribes; but a discussion of these
is not relevant to the subject in hand.
An independent corroboration of the conclusion we have
drawn from the legends of the Dashagvas and Dirghatamas

182 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
is furnished by the number of seasons mentioned in certain
Vedic texts. A period of sunshine of ten months followed by
a long night of two months can well be described as five seasons
of two months each, followed by the sinking of the sun into
the waters below the horizon; and as a matter of fact we find
the year so described in I, 164, 12, a verse, which occurs also in
the Atharva Veda (IX, 9, 12,) with a slight variation and in the
Prashnopaniṣhad I, 11. It may be literally translated as
follows:—"The five-footed (pañcha-pâdam) Father of twelve
forms, they say, is full of watery vapours (purîshiṇam) in the
farther half (pare ardhe) of the heaven. These others again
say (that) He the far-seeing (vichakshaṇam) is placed on the six-
spoked (shaḍ are) and seven-wheeled (car), in the nearer (upare,
scil. ardhe) half of the heaven."* The adjective 'far-seeing' is
made to qualify 'seven-wheeled' instead of 'He' in the
Atharva Veda, vichakshaṇe being in the locative case; while
Shaṅkarâchârya in his commentary on the Prashnopaniṣhpad
splits upare into two words u and pare, taking u as an expletive.
But these readings do not materially alter the meaning of the
verse. The context everywhere clearly indicates that the
year-god of twelve months (âkṛiti, X, 85, 5) is here described.
The previous verse in the hymn (Ṛig. I, 164) mentions
"The twelve-spoked wheel, in which 720 sons of Agni
are established," a clear reference to a year of twelve
months with 720 days and nights. There is, therefore,

• Ṛig. I., 164, 12, — पंचपादं पितरं द्वादशाकृतिं दिव आहुः परे अर्धे
  पुरीषिणम्। अथेमे अन्य उपरे विचक्षणं सप्तचक्रे षळर आहुरर्पितम्॥ For
  विचक्षणम् A. V. (IX, 9 12,) reads विचक्षणे; while Shaṅkarâchârya in his
  gloss on Prashnopaniṣhad takes उ and परे as two different words.
  Shaṅkarâchârya's explanation of परे अर्धे is also noteworthy. He trans-
  lates it by तृतीयास्यां दिवि, 'in the third heaven,' the seat of the third
  step of Vishṇu, meaning that the five-footed year-god is then hidden in
  the remotest part of the heaven.

MONTHS AND SEASONS. 183
no doubt that the passage contains the description of the year,
and the two halves of the verse, which are introduced by the
phrases 'they say' and 'others say,' give us two opinions about
the nature of the year-god of twelve forms. Let us now see
what these opinions are. Some say that the year-god is five-
footed (pañcha-pâdam), that is, divided into five seasons; and
the others say that he has a six-spoked car, or six seasons. It
is clear from this that the number of seasons was held to be
five by some and six by others in early days. Why should
there be this difference of opinion? The Aitareya Brâhmaṇa
I, 1, (and the Taittirîya Saṁhitâ I, 6, 2, 3) explains that the two
seasons of Hemanta and Shishira together made a joint season,
thereby reducing the number of seasons from six to five. But
this explanation seems to be an afterthought, for in the Shata-
patha Brâhmaṇa, XIII, 6, 1, 10, Varshâ and Sharad are com-
pounded for this purpose instead of Hemanta and Shishira. This
shews that in the days of the Taittirîya Saṁhitâ and the Brâh-
maṇas it was not definitely known or settled which two seasons
out of six should be compounded to reduce the number to five;
but as five seasons were sometimes mentioned in the Vedas,
some explanation was felt to be necessary to account for the
smaller number, and such explanation was devised by taking
together any two consecutive seasons out of six and regard-
ing them as one joint season of four months. But the ex-
planation is too vague to be true; and we cannot believe that
the system of compounding any two seasons according to one's
choice was ever followed in practice. We must, therefore,
give up the explanation as unsatisfactory, and see if the verse
from the Ṛig-Veda, quoted above, enables us to find out a
better explanation of the fact that the seasons were once held
to be five. Now the first half of this verse describes the
five-footed father as full of watery vapours in the farther
part of heaven, while the year of six-spoked car is said to

184 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
be far-seeing. In short, purīshiṇam (full of, or dwelling in, waters)
in the first line appears to be a counterpart of vichakshaṇam
(far-seeing) in the second line. This is made clear by the verses
which follow. Thus the 13th verse in the hymn speaks of " the
five-spoked wheel " as remaining entire and unbroken though
ancient ; and the next or the 14th verse says that " the unwast-
ing wheel with its felly revolves ; the ten draw (it) yoked over
the expanse. The sun's eye goes covered with rajas (aerial
vapour) ; all worlds are dependent on him."* Comparing this
with the 11th verse first quoted, it may be easily seen that
purīshiṇam (full of watery vapours) and rajasā āvṛitam (covered
with rajas) are almost synonymous phrases, and the only in-
ference we can draw from them is that the five-footed year-
god or the sun went to dwell in watery vapours i. e., became
invisible, or covered with darkness (rajas), for some time in
the farther part of the heaven. The expression that " The
ten, yoked, draw his carriage," (also cf. Ṛig. IX, 63, 9) further
shows that the five seasons were not made by combining any
two consecutive seasons out of six as explained in the Brâh-
maṇas (for in that case the number of horses could not be
called ten), but that a real year of five seasons or
ten months was here intended. When the number of seasons
became increased to six, the year-god ceased to be
purīshin (full of waters), and became vichakshaṇam or far-see-
ing. We have seen that the sun, as represented by Dîrgha-
tamas, grew old in the tenth month, and riding on aerial
waters went into the ocean. The same idea is expressed in
the present verse which describes two different views about
the nature of the year, one of five, and the other of six sea-
sons, and contrasts their leading features with each other.

• Ṛig. I, 164, 13 & 14,—पञ्चारे चक्रे परिवर्तमाने तस्मिञ्छा तस्थुर्भुवनानि
  विश्वा । तस्य नाक्षस्तप्यते भूरिभारः सनादेव न शीर्यते सनाभिः ॥ सनेमि चक्र-
  मजरं वि वावृत उत्तानायां दश युक्ता वहन्ति । सूर्यस्य चक्षू रजसैत्यावृतं तस्मि-
  न्नार्पिता भुवनानि विश्वा ॥

MONTHS AND SEASONS. 185
Thus pare ardhe is contrasted with upare ardhe in the second
line, pañcha-pādam (compare pañchāre in the next verse, i.e.,
Ṛig-Veda I, 164, 13) with ṣhaḍ-are, and purīshiṇam with vichaksh-
nam. In short, the verse under consideration describes the year
either (1) as five-footed, and lying in waters in the farther part of
heaven, or (2) as mounted on a six-spoked car and far-seeing in
the nearer part of the heaven. These two descriptions cannot
evidently apply to seasons in one and the same place, and the
artifice of combining two consecutive seasons cannot be
accepted as a solution of the question. Five seasons and ten
months, followed by the watery residence of the sun or dark
nights, is what is precisely described in the first half of this
passage (I, 164, 12), and, from what has been said hitherto, it
will be easily seen that it is the Arctic year of ten months that
is here described. The verse, and especially the contrast
between purīshiṇam and vichakshaṇam, does not appear to
have attracted the attention it deserves. But in the light of
the Arctic theory the description is now as intelligible
as any. The Vedic bards have here preserved for us the
memory of a year of five seasons or ten months, although
their year had long been changed into one of twelve
months. The explanation given in the Brâhmaṇas are all so
many post facto devices to account for the mention of five
seasons in the Ṛig-Veda, and I do not think we are bound to
accept them when the fact of five seasons can be better ac-
counted for. I have remarked before that in searching for
evidence of ancient traditions we must expect to find later
traditions associated with them, and Ṛig. I, 164, 12, dis-
cussed above, is a good illustration of this remark. The
first line of the verse, though it speaks of five seasons, des-
cribes the year as twelve-formed; while the second line,
which deals with a year of six seasons or twelve months,
speaks of it as 'seven-wheeled,' that is, made up of seven
months or seven suns, or seven rays of the sun. This may

186 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
appear rather inconsistent at the first sight; but the history
of words in any language will show that old expressions
are preserved in the language long after they have ceased
to denote the ideas primarily expressed by them. Thus
we now use coins for exchange, yet the word ‘pecuniary,’
which is derived from pecus = cattle, is still retained in
the language; and similarly, we still speak of the rising
of the sun, though we now know that it is not the lumi-
nary that rises, but the earth, by rotating round its axis,
makes the sun visible to us. Very much in the same way
and by the same process, expressions like saptâshva (seven-
horsed) or sapta-chakra (seven-wheeled), as applied to the
year or the sun, must have become recognised and esta-
blished as current phrases in the language before the hymns
assumed their present form, and the Vedic bards could
not have discarded them even when they knew that they
were not applicable to the state of things before them. On
the contrary, as we find in the Brâhmaņas, every artifice,
that ingenuity could suggest, was tried to make these old
phrases harmonise with the state of things then in vogue,
and from the religious or the sacrificial point of view it was
quite necessary to do so. But when we have to examine
the question from a historical stand-point, it is our duty to
separate the relics of the older period from facts or in-
cidents of the later period with which the former are some-
times inevitably mixed up; and if we analyse the verse in
question (I, 164, 12) in this way we shall clearly see in it
the traces of a year of ten months and five seasons. The
same principle is also applicable in other cases, as, for in-
stance, when we find the Navagvas mentioned together with
the seven vipras in VI, 22, 2. The bards, who gave us the
present version of the hymns, knew of the older or primeval
state of things only by traditions, and it is no wonder if
these traditions are occasionally mixed up with later events.

MONTHS AND SEASONS. 187
On the contrary the preservation of so many traditions of the
primeval home is itself a wonder, and it is this fact, which
invests the oldest Veda with such peculiar importance from
the religious as well as the historical point of view.
To sum up: there are clear traditions preserved in the
Ṛig-Veda, which show that the year once consisted of seven
months or seven suns, as in the legend of Aditi's sons, or that
there were ten months of the year as in the legend of the
Dashagvas or Dîrghatamas; and these cannot be accounted for
except on the Arctic theory. These ten months formed the
sacrificial session of the primeval sacrificers of the Aryan
race; and the period was denominated as mânuṣhâ yugâ, or
human ages, an expression much misunderstood by Western
scholars. The sun went below the horizon in the tenth of these
yugas, and Indra fought with Vala in the period of darkness
which followed, and, at the end of the year, again brought back
the sun "dwelling in darkness" during the period. The
whole year of twelve months was thus made up of "mânuṣhâ
yugâ and continuous nights," and, in spite of the fact that the
Vedic bards lived later on in places where the sun was above
the horizon for twelve months, the expression "mânuṣhâ yugâ
and kṣhapaḥ (nights)" is still found in the Ṛig-Veda. It is
true that the evidence discussed in this chapter is mostly le-
gendary; but that does not lessen its importance in any way,
for it will be seen later on that some of these traditions are
Indo-European in character. The tradition that the year was
regarded by some to have been made up only of five seasons, or
that only ten horses were yoked to the chariot of the sun, is
again in full accord with the meaning of these legends; and it
will be shown in the next chapter that in the Vedic litera-
ture there are express statements about a sacrificial session of
ten months, which are quite independent of these traditions,
and which, therefore, independently prove and strengthen the
conclusions deduced from the legends discussed in this chapter.

CHAPTER VIII.
THE COWS' WALK.
The Pravargya ceremony—Symbolises the revival of the yearly
sacrifice—Milk representing seed heated in Gharma or Mahâvîra-
—Mantras used on the occasion of pouring milk into it —The
two creating the five, and the ten of Vivasvat—Indicate the
death of the year after five seasons or ten months—The tradi-
tion about the sun falling beyond the sky—Annual Sattras—
Their type, the Gavâm-ayanam or the Cows' walk—Lasted
for 10 or 12 months according to the Aitareya Brâhmaṇa
—Two passages from the Taittirîya Samhitâ describing the
Gavâm-ayanam—Mention 10 months' duration of the Sattra,
but give no reason except that it was an ancient practice
—Plainly indicates an ancient sacrificial year of ten months
—Comparison with the old Roman year of ten months or 304
days—How the rest of 360 days were disposed of by the
Romans not yet known—They represented a long period of
darkness according to the legend of the Dashagvas—Thus lead-
ing to the Arctic theory—Prof. Max Muller on the threefold
nature of cows in the Vedas—Cows as animals, rain and dawns
or days in the Ṛig-Veda—Ten months' Cows' walk thus means
the ten months' duration of ordinary days and nights—350
oxen of Helios—Implies a night of ten days—The stealing of
Apollon's oxen by Hermes—Cows stolen by Vritra in the Vedas
—Represent the stealing of day-cows thereby causing the long
night—Further sacrificial evidence from the Vedas—Classifi-
cation of the Soma-sacrifices—Difference between Ekâha and
Ahîna—A hundred nightly sacrifices—Annual Sattras like the
Gavâm-ayanam—Model outline or scheme of ceremonies
therein—Other modifications of the same—All at present
based upon a civil year--But lasted for ten months in ancient
times--Night-sacrifices now included amongst day-sacrifices
—The reason why the former extend only over 100 nights
is yet unexplained--Appropriately accounted for on the Arctic
theory—Soma juice extracted at night in the Atirâtra, or
the trans nocturnal sacrifice even now--The analogy applied
to other night-sacrifices—Râtri Sattras were the sacrifices of
the long night in ancient times—Their object--Soma libations
exclusively offered to Indra to help him in his fight against

THE COWS' WALK. 189
Vala—Shata-râtra represented the maximum duration of the long
night—Corroborated by Aditi's legend of seven months' sunshine
—Explains why Indra was called 'Shata-kratu in the Purânas—
The epithet misunderstood by Western scholars—Similarity
between Soma and Ashvamedha sacrifices—The epithet Shata-
kratu, unlike other epithets, never paraphrased in the Vedas
—Implies that it was peculiar or proper to Indra—Dr. Haug's
view that kratu means a sacrifice in the Vedas—Hundred forts
or puraḥ (cities) of Vritra—Explained as hundred seats of dark-
ness or nights—Legend of Tishtrya's fight with Apaosha in the
Avesta—Only a reproduction of Indra's fight with Vritra—Tish-
trya's fight described as lasting from one to a hundred nights in
the Avesta—Forms an independent corroboration of hundred
nightly Soma sacrifices—The phrase sato-karahe found in the
Avesta—The meaning and nature of Ati-râtra discussed—Means
a trans-nocturnal Soma sacrifice at either end of the long night
—Production of the cycle of day and night therefrom—Hence a
fitting introduction to the annual Sattras—Marked the close of
the long night and the beginning of the period of sunshine—
Sattra, Ati-râtra, night-sacrifices and Ati-râtra again thus formed
the yearly round of sacrifices in ancient times—Clearly indicate
the existence of a long darkness of 100 nights in the ancient year
—Ancient sacrificial system thus corresponded with the ancient
year—Adaptation of both to the new home effected by the
Brâhmaṇas, like Numa's reform in the old Roman Calendar—
The importance of the results of sacrificial evidence.
THE legend of the Dashagvas, who completed their sa-
crifices during ten months, is not the only relic of the an-
cient year preserved in the sacrificial literature. The Pra-
vargya ceremony, which is described in the Aitareya Brâh-
maṇa, (I, 18-22), furnishes us with another instance, where a
reference to the old year seems to be clearly indicated. Dr.
Haug, in his translation of the Aitareya Brâhmaṇa, has fully
described this ceremony in a note to I, 18. It lasts for three
days and precedes the animal and the Soma sacrifice, as no
one is allowed to take part in the Soma feast without having
undergone this ceremony. The whole ceremony symbolises the

190 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
revival of the sun or the sacrificial ceremony (yajña), which,
for the time being, is preserved as seed in order that it may
grow again in due time (Ait. Br. I, 18). Thus one of the chief
implements used in the ceremony is a peculiar earthen pot called
Gharma or Mahâvîra. Placing it on the Vedic altar the Adhvaryu
makes a circle of clay called khara, because it is made of earth
brought on the back of a donkey to the sacrificial ground. He
places the pot on the circle and heats it so as to make it quite
hot (gharma). It is then lifted by means of two shaphas (two
wooden pieces), and then milking a cow, the milk is poured into
the heated pot and mixed with the milk of a goat whose
kid is dead. After this has been done, the contents of the
Mahvâvira are thrown into the Âhavanîya fire. But all the
contents of the pot are not thus thrown away, for the Hotṛi is
described as eating the remainder of the contents of the Gharma,
which are said to be full of honey, full of sap, full of food and
quite hot. The Aitareya Brâhmaṇa (I, 22) gives us a rational of
this ceremony as follows, "The milk in the vessel is the seed.
This seed (in the shape of milk) is poured in Agni (fire) as the
womb of the gods for production, for Agni is the womb
of the gods." This explanation proves the symbolic nature
of the ceremony, and shows that the sun, the sacrifice or the
year is thus preserved as seed for some time, and then revived
at the proper season. The Mantra or the verse, which is reci-
ted on the occasion of pouring the milk into the Mahâvîra, is
taken from the Ṛig-Veda VIII, 72 (61), 8, and it is very likely
that the verse was selected not simply on account of mere
verbal correspondence. The hymn, where this verse occurs,
is rather obscure. But the verse itself, as well as the two
preceding verses (VIII, 72 (61), 6–7–8), present no verbal diffi-
culty and may be translated as follows:—
"6. And now that mighty and great chariot of his with
horses, (as well as) the line of his chariot, is seen."