मल्लपुराण (ज्येष्ठिमल्ल - प्राचीन भारतीय मल्लविद्या, अखाड़ा व्यायाम व कुश्ती महाग्रन्थ)

[14]

Chapter X shows 16 types of exercises. They are (1) Raṅgaśrama (2)
Stambhaśrama (3) Bhramanikāśrama (4) Śvāsapreranikābhyāsa (5) Uhāpoha-
śrama (6) Guru Goṇitaka (7) Laghu Goṇitaka (8) Pramdāśrama (9) Āmar-
dakīśrama (10) Āsthānaka (11) Kundakārśṇaka (12) Anyaḳrtkaraśrama
(13) Jalaaśrama (14) Paranarohaṇaśrama (15) Bhojanordhabhramaṇikā (16)
Sthāpitaśrama.
These are further grouped in three varieties as Uttama, Madhyama and
Adhama.
Uttama—Raṅgaśrama.
Madhyama—Stambhasramaṇikā, Bāhuśrama, Guru Goṇitaka, Laghu
Goṇitaka, Gadāśrama, Chonakaśrama.
Adhama—Aṅgakāvartana, Sramakaśrama, Jalaśrama, Sopanroguruśrama,
Bhojanordhabhramaṇikā.
The varieties of exercises are tabulated below. It shows incomplete text.
x.1.5.       xi       X.7.11.
Sixteen śramas           fifteen śramas.

1. Raṅgaśrama    Raṅgaśrama    1. Raṅgaśrama.
2. Sṭhambhaśrama           2. Sthambha
3. Bhramaṇikāśrama  Bhramanikāśrama 3. Bāhu
4. Svāsapreraṇikāśrama         4. Bāhuśrama
5. Sthāpitaśrama
6. Uhāpohaśrama    Uhāpoha     5. Guru Goṇitaka
7. Guru Gochintakaśrama Guru Goṇitaka
8. Laghu Goṇitakaśrama  Pidanaka     6. Laghu Goṇitaka
9. Pramadāśrama    Gadā       7. Gadāśrama
10. Āmardakiśrama            8. Choṇaka
11. Āsthādanakaśrama
12. Kundakarśanakāśrama Kundakāvartana  9. Aṅgakāvartanābhyāsa
13. Anyaḳrtkaraśrama           10. Śramakāśrama
14. Jalaśrama      Jalaśrama     11. Jalaśrama
15. Paranarohaṇaśrama  Sopānrohaṇa   12. Sopanaroguruśrama
16. Bhojanordhvabhrama- Bhoja nordha bhrama 13. Bhojanordhva
    ṇikā        Bāhupreraṇika    bhramaṇikā
    Choṭanaka
    Karkara
    This is the technical part of Mallapurāṇa. Unfortunately the traditions
    preserving the exact meaning of these terms have almost disappeared, but the
    Jeṭhīs are still practising many forms of these exercises. From a study of the
    forms of exercises, the equipment and the language, an effort is made here to

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explain these terms. In these efforts Chapter XI which narrates the technique
of exercises is of utmost importance. It is possible that some explanations may
prove to be incorrect in the light of some new material that may become avail-
able in future. Still, however, an effort in this direction would be worth-while
and hence a study of these terms is undertaken. Some terms could not however
be explained.
Raṅgaśrama
This is the wrestling proper and occurs in all the lists. It is considered to
be the highest type of exercise as it leads to glory and wealth. Wrestling indeed
is difficult and in traditional Indian Gymnasium far more weight is placed on
the proficiency in this art, which requires courage, strength, skill and stamina.
As it is played in the Ranga or Akhāḍā, it is known here as Raṅgaśrama. The
study of Mallapurāṇa proves that Ranga and Akhāḍā are synonyms and hence
this identification. Mallapurāṇa considers it as the best form of exercises and
other types which help in developing an individual to become a wrestler are
considered to be of the Madhyama type.
Sthambhaśrama
It is a type of exercise on smooth wooden pillars of a number of varieties.
To-day the sthambhas are either fixed in the ground or are left hanging. The
hanging stambhas have about four varieties. One is similar to that fixed on the
ground. Other is a very small size stambha almost like a baton. Its variant
has two pairs hanging near each other. The fourth type is a long cane on which
exercises are performed.
The Mallasthambha exercises are many but the Mallapurāṇa summarises
them under the title Stambhādhirohaṇam. It takes place in three ways—First
by the strength of the arm, second by twisting the body and third by means of
legs. (X. 16 ff.).
Exercise on Mallasthambha requires strength and stamina. It lays great
emphasis on the turning and twisting of body and develops toughness. Malla-
purāṇa notes that it developes the strength of the body, specifically shoulders,
hands, arms, thighs, waist, leg-joints and makes the body tough and slim.
In modern practices Mallastambha is considered to be an essential train-
ing for wrestling, but this extremely important art is fast dying out.
Goṇitaka
This is a common form of exercise in the two lists. Goṇitaka is divided
in two varieties, the large and the small. The term Goṇitaka and Goṇita are
used to denote this type. Goṇita does not seem to be a Sanskrit term, but
seems to be a Sanskritised version of some Gujarati term like Ghāṇī, which
may signify an instrument like present day Cākī. This traditional stone ring

occurs in two varieties. The seventeen ways of exercising with this instru-
ment suggests this identification because the exercises with Chaki also have
close similarity, in performance. It requires to be lifted, swung, put on head
etc. This large Goṇitaka is useful in developing thigh, neck and the whole
body. (XI. 16 ff.)

It is interesting to note that Laghu Goṇitaka is not noted in the forms
of exercises in Ch. XI. Possibly it is represented by another name, the
Piṇḍanaka. They are Piṇḍlā small circles and may be identified with present
day Nālī. They are stone rings with a central bar and are used almost like
iron dumb-bells. The description of these Piṇḍanakas immediately follows
that of Guru Goṇitaka (XI, 27 ff.). They develop arm joints, hands and
upper arm. This description helps us in the identification as the Nālīs also
develop these parts of the body.

Pramadā
This is a rather difficult term to be explained, but in Chapter XI, its
place is taken by Gadā. From this coincidence one may infer that in the first
list the term Pramadā is used in grammatical sense. It is represented in the
second list as Gadā and the same term is used in Chapter XI. The heavy
Gadā, Mudgara, Kārelā and other types of clubs are used for exercising arms,
shoulders, writsts.

Jalaśrama
Jalaśrama is noted in all the lists of Mallapurana. It is classified as
Adhama form of exercise perhaps because it does not directly help the wrestling.
From this term swimming could be inferred. Swimming is a good form of
exercise, but it was not developed to a highly competitive stage to which it has
reached to-day. It was more or less a complimentary exercise which developed
chest and arms. This idea seems to exist as only the underwater breast-stroke,
dog paddle, or the over-arm trudgen and back strokes were known. The crawls
and butterfly stroke meant for speed and development were unknown in India
as well as in most of the other countries. Looking to this state of the art of
swimming it was not given high prominence but was accepted as an item of
exercise.

Sopānarohaṇa
This term seems to be difficult to explain. It is a well-known fact that
running up a ladder is a good form of exercise. But one does not know whether
this term was used in this sense, as it is written in three variants such as
Sopānarohaṇa, Sopanaroguruśrama, Paranarohaṇaśrama. These terms can be
interpreted in different ways. One of the meanings is already noticed the others
may signify that it is an exercise in which at least two persons participated.

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It may be like the pyramid building as practised to-day or lifting another man
and walking. All these interpretations seem to be valid and hence a definite
explanation of this term is not possible. All these forms of exercises are well-
known.
Kuṇḍakāvartana
This seems to be a form of exercise in which circular movements are
entailed. The Vajramuṣṭi exercises have a number of calasthenics in which
circular movements, tumbling etc. are involved and these exercises seem to have
been noted here as their effects such as development of thighs, waist, building up
wind-power and strengthening of heart are specially mentioned. The Vajra-
muṣṭi circular movements are quite fast and they are something like the circuit
exercises that are recently developed.
Bhojanordhavabhraṇaṇikā
The meaning of this term is not clear and what is its relation to Bhrama-
ṇikā is also not certain. Bhramaṇikā seems to be again Calasthenics, possibly
on the ground. It may mean simply a walk after the meals. Kuṇḍakāvartana
also may be interpreted as some type of calesthenics.
Svāsapreraṇikāśrama
This does not seem to be any specific exercise, but it suggests the quality
of exercises which develop stamina. These are running, skipping and related
types that induce heavy breathing and train an individual to work hard under
the conditions of 'oxygendebt'.
Uhāpohaśrama
This is no exercise at all. It is only at the most discussion, planning and
thinking. Eventhough this activity does not require any gymnastic or athletic
ability, it is an extremely important part of the preparation. Instructions are
given and plans are drawn for success in a meet. This activity includes a major
part of theory and coaching hints.
Bāhupreraṇikāśrama
This exereise seems to be identical with the Daṇḍas, that are a very
common traditional form of exercise, from the description of the advantages
noted in Chapter XI, 9-12. This seem to be the Bāhuśrama of Chapter X.
Āsthādanaka
With the present day daṇḍa, baiṭhakas are closely related. The exercise
noted as Āsthādanaka probably seems to represent this type. It has many
varieties and are useful for strengthening the lower parts of the body.
Āmardakīśrama
This exercise seems to indicate the effects of massage on the massagist.
This inference is made possible because massage is noted as Mardanā and a
3

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derivative from it may be the āmardakiśrama. It is well-known to the massa-
gists that giving massage is quite a streneous form of exercise. It might also
mean the passive form of exercises felt while under going massage.
Sthāpitaśrama
This term seems to imply the standard exercises but what were the
exercises that were considered to be standard is difficult to say. To-day the
standard exercises are Daṇḍa, Baiṭhaka, Mallastambha and Wrestling.
Anyatkṛtakaraśrama
This seems to indicate the exercises in pairs. They are different from
wrestling proper and include pulling, pushing and other movements. This type
always require another partner and hence the use of this term.
Chotanaka and Karkara
These terms are difficult to explain. Eventhough they are noted, their
references are very vague. The former seems to be a form of arm exercise, but
what is its exact form is difficult to explain.
Similarly Karkar is also a difficult term. Perhaps it seems to indicate
exercise for lower parts of the body whcih helps slimming.
Aṅgakāvartana
The term may mean the twisting exercises if it is taken to be one word.
The context does not help to arrive at a definite explantion. Even if the whole
term is a combination of two items—Angaka and Āvartana, it is difficult to assign
definite meaning to each.
Śramakāśrama
These may include the exercises of a Śramaka but the term Śramaka cannot
be easily explained.
The above discussion suggests that the list of exercises specially in Chapter
X are sophisticated, but that in Chapter XI is more realistic as it specially
narrates the forms of exercises and their effects. The tradition of Indian
Gymnastics is also partly preserved and partly lost. The major part of the
tradition is still preserved by the Jyeṣṭhimallas. The varieties that appear to be
lost are due to the use of new terms. The old terms have become obsolete. This
being the case it is difficult to know whether the instruments such as Antar-
pakad, Santola etc. were used from high antiquity or introduced at a later stage.
Besides this the Mallapurāṇa is almost silent about the nomenclature as well as
explantions of a variety of exercises which are meant for strengthening and body-
building. In this respect it does not serve as a good hand-book.
Exercises—their suitability and quality
The exercises are noted by the purāṇa, and the problem of the amount of
exercises and their effect is also duly considered in it. The amount of exercises
is noted in the classification Alpa, Ardha, Purṇa and Ati. (VIII, 23-24).

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Physical exercises are not suitable at all times and in some cases may
endanger health and life. The mallas have, therefore, enjoined, the following
persons not to take exercise: Pīnasa ( persons having Nasal disease ), Sofavān
( having swelling ), Kāsa ( having dry coughing ), Śvāsa ( having heavy breath-
ing ), Kṣudhātura ( Hungry ), Bhuktavān ( one who has eaten ), Akṣam ( weak ),
Kṣīṇa ( emaciated ), Vyagra, cintātura ( worried ), Ajīrṇavāna ( dispeptic ),
Durbala ( without strength ), Strīsukṣīṇa ( weakened by sexual relation ), Mada-
pīḍita ( intoxicated ), Sirorogārta ( troubled by disease of head ), Bhrānta ( mad ),
Kshudhāviṣṭo ( very hungry ). Some of these disabilities are temporary and
others of longer duration.
Alpaśrama
Alapaśrama is noted as light exercise and it is defined as that form which
does not lead to perspiration or heavy breathing. This definition suggests the
amount rather than the types of exercises.
Such Alpaśrama leads to the development of strength, improves digestion,
feeling of lightness and enthusiasm, stops old age, keeps muscles firm and leads
to general development ( Bṛhaṇa ).
This is recommended for children, old people, persons weakened by fever,
wounded people, man with eye-disease, sick, weak and suffering from weak
digestion, vāta, heat and overwork. It is also recommended for persons, who
have insufficient blood, who have observed fast and have deformed body
( Kuśarīra ).
Ardhaśrama
Ardhaśrama is more strenuous than Alpaśrama. It is defined as the exer-
cise which leads to perspiration on the neck, face, armpits, hand and leg-joints
and develops rather hard breathing.
Ardhaśrama develops pleasant mind ( Saumanasa ), strength, nourishment,
enthusiasm, joy, happiness and builds up strength and stamina. It removes
fainting, fat, bile etc.
Pūrṇaśrama
This form leads to heavy perspiration all over the body and the eyes
become red. It causes heavy breathing and may result in parching of throat,
giddiness, fainting thirst, loss of strength, vomitting, bleeding, burning in heart
and even fever.
The good effects of this form of exercise is health, strength, destruction of
diseases of heart, bile, worms, Kuṣṭha. It leads to courage, endurance, good
apetite and destruction of diseases.
It is recommended for Jyeṣṭhī, Antarjyeṣṭhī and Gopakula wrestlers. This
form includes very heavy exercises and proper care is taken to point out various

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troubles that are associated with it as well as its advantages. Traditional
practice in recommending exercises is fairly in line with this. Light exercises
are recommended for weak, old and children. A bit heavier types are for
ordinary people who do not aspire to be mallas. But those who desire to earn
name are asked to work very vigourously. The general recommendation is that
while taking exercises, the falling drops of perspiration should drench the ground
in such a way that the figure developed by the wet ground would resemble a
human form.
Atiśrama
Eventhough this excessive form is noted it is not recommended. It is a
strenuous effort beyond one's capacity (IX, 19).
The classification of these exercises is based on its amount, and the re-
commended types are based on experience. Some of the bad effects of Pūrṇa-
śrama arise due to inadequate preparation, whereas others are due to dietary
and other defects which lead to many diseases.
Time of exercise
Daily exercises are recommended to be taken in the morning. The seasonal
variations are also noted in Mallapurāṇa. The winter is recommended for
Pūrṇaśrama (December-April). In the summer (May-June-July) only Ardha-
śrama is recommended, whereas in monsoon light exercises are recommended.
Some days of rest are also enjoined. Specially Aṣṭamī, Caturdaśī; the
lost tithī, the days of Sutaka, Mahāṣṭamī, Srāddhapakṣa (Pitṛpakṣa), Akṣaya
navamī, eclipses, Akṣayatṛtiyā. These specifications generally mean that at
least once a week the rest day was observed and some times more days were
observed as rest days, depending upon the situation.
Massage
It is a well-known dictum of the coaches that exercises, massage and rest
are essential for proper training of an athlete. The Indian Mallas also recognis-
ed this aspect and had given due emphasis to massage.
Massage is known as Mardanā and here four types are noted as (1) Bhīm-
senī (2) Nārayaṇī (3) Citraṇī (4) Masṛṇī.
Bhīmsenī Mardanā seems to be massage with sufficient pressure. It is
supposed to remove heavy breathing, build up body, remove fatigue, reduce fat,
builds stamina, and beautify the body.
The massage reaching upto flesh perhaps lighter pressure than the first is
supposed to induce sleep, develop lustre and courage and cleanse and beautify
the body and keep the mind steady of the Asthi-Mānsāsāra Malla.
The Bhīmsenī Mardanā for Mānsāsāra is supposed to lead to enthusiasm,

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joy, happiness and feeling of lightness. It gives intelligence and removes slug-
gishness.
Massage is supposed to reach bones and flesh. This seems to indicate the
pressures of massage.
The divisions of massage are noted but their differences are not clearly
stated. Bhīmsenī is given to the legs, Nārāyaṇī to the kness, Citraṇī on arms
Masṛṇī on thighs.
The Bhīmsenī and Nārāyaṇī should be given to mallas and Citraṇī is to
be given to old and young. Citraṇī seems to be a comparatively light massage.
It is a massage on hands only. Nārāyaṇī is to be given to legs upto the knee,
and it is fairly heavy as it is described to reach the five Dhātus.
Masṛṇī is rubbing of the body and thighs. It is the lightest variety of
massage.
Incidentally it may be noted that the kneading, pressing, vibrating and
other types of technicalities of massage are not detailed out in this section.
Use of the Training
These exercises were meant for the general development and building up
of the body for the wrestling meet. The wrestling meets were arranged by
the kings and their description is given in the Mallapurāṇa.
Wrestling matches
Wrestling is considered to be joyful, it develops enthusiasm and removes
sorrow. Therefore, it is recommended that the king should always witness
the wrestling match. He should invite his friends, ministers knowing the arts
and clever citizens, the queen and princesses. He should also invite the
mallas. The next day in the morning the king should rise early and make
the mallas also rise. He should order to bring the earth for the arena.
Arena
The arena is also described in the Mallapurāṇa. It is not the mat as is
used to-day. The arena is known as Ākhāḍhaka. It is high, levelled and low.
Its dimensions are three Devamāna (101 Hastas), Daityamāna (50 Hastas) and
Martyamāna (21 Hastas). It is square, triangular and circular. The earth
with kankar, iron, wood, stone, thorn etc. should be avoided. It appears that
the general dimension was 21 hastas which is equal to about 30 feet, and the
Devamāna and Daityamāna seem to be more for rhetorics rather than actual use.
The earth must be pleasing to see and as soft as that required for seed-
laying and should be a hand high and levelled. It should be worshipped and
Hari should be placed there and a Bijapuraka be placed in the centre of the
arena. After worshipping ‘Govinda’ the king should see the wrestling.

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Wrestling :
The wrestlers should put on the Āyudha on the fingers. It should be
knitted with thread. When the opponent is broken (defeated) the malla be-
comes victorious.
The Vajramuṣṭi wrestling is free fight which includes kicking, pressing with
knee, boxing on head, temple etc, but a hit below the chest is a foul game.
The wrestling is divided in four types (1) Dharaṇīpāta, (2) Āṣura, (3)
Nara, (4) Yuddha.
Dharaṇīpāta
Dharaṇīpāta is getting the opponent down on the earth, It is achieved by
the force of palm, arm or by throwing one's self down and then bringing down
the enemy. The fallen enemy is defeated.
Dharaṇīpāta type of wrestling seems to be the common wrestling where
victory and defeat consists in turning the opponent on the back. The wrestling
types such as Bhīmsenī and Hanumantī seem to be of this variety.
Āṣura :
This type is more fierce and seems to be a free-fight which includes injury
to ear and nose, felling of teeth, biting, pulling of hair, throwing earth, scratch-
ing with nails, catching the neck, breaking of fingers etc.
This type of wrestling is noted as Mathara, Masura also, it seems to be
equivalent to the Jarāsandhī variety known to-day. Such type leads to the fall
of the malla, but he should not be killed. That is Dharmayuddha. If a malla
dies the king is responsible. Once a malla falls on the ground the wrestling is
stopped. The other types are not described in the Purāṇa.
Wrestling grips
Several grips are indicated but their execution is not very clear, but
several throws can be indicated. The usual term for these grips is the lāga.
Generalised descriptions of wrestling are noted in Chapter 17.
Prize distribution
The wrestlers were given prizes. The victorious malla used to get twice
as much as the defeated. The equals used to get equal prize. After the prize
distribution the king used to return to the palace.
Mallas of Mallapurāṇa
It is clear from the Mallapurāṇa that the work is meant for the mallas,
who are now known as the Jyeṣṭhīmallas, Jyeṣṭhis or Jeṭhis. These mallas are
found in Gujarat, Mysore, Hyderabad and Rajasthan. They are a sub-caste of
the Moḍha Brāhmins i.e. the Brāhmins who migrated to other parts of Gujarat

23
originally from Moḍhera¹, a town in North Gujarat. It is interesting to note
that such caste-names showing their geographical location are very common in
Gujarat.
The Jeṭhīs migrated to different capitals and towns of mediaeval states in
search of patronage, hence their movement from Moḍhera to other places is more
of the slow infilteration rather than complete exodus. This view could be sup-
ported from the fact that even today they are found in the area around Moḍhera.
They have not occupied this area recently but tradition supports the view that
they originated from this centre.
Their earlier centre could not be traced from their traditions. Moḍherā is
an old town which could be dated from at least the beginning of the Christian
era, with the archaeological evidence, but this antiquity is difficult to be given
to the mallas. For all practical purposes they might be considered to have
existed as a distinct community in this area from about the 10th-11th century
A.D. Higher antiquity than this is however not ruled out, but it is difficult to
corroborate it by positive evidence in the present state of our knowledge.
This is the late Mediaeval period of Indian History. Eventhough the
small kingdoms divided the political face of the nation, cultural ties were very
strong, migration and travel were fairly common and they strengthened the
cultural ties. Specially much intercourse existed between Gujarat, Rajasthan,
U.P. and Koṅkaṇ, Maharashtra and Mysore region. This contact seems to be
a link which helped the mallas to migrate to the different states in South as
well as North India. Similar migrations for patronage are noted for other
professionals like pandits, bards weavers also, but they do not suggest a
sudden exodus, as the caste survives in the centre of its origin upto the present
day. Again, it must be kept in mind that numerous poets, artisans and other
professional people used to move from one court to other and were settling in
the court which might patronise them or else they used to lead a partly
migratory life.
It is interesting to note, therefore, that by 1131 A. D. Munijetty erected
the temple of Cāmuṇḍeśvarī, during the reign of Hoysala ruler Viṣṇuvardhana,
in Undiganāḷu village, Javagal Hobli, Arsikere Taluke, Hassan District, Mysore
State. Further the inscription notes that about two hundred houses were also
built in Undiganali, probably for the jettis. Another evidence of their existence
here is provided by an inscription of cir. 1276 A. D. that Shri Nimbajādevī
temple was given some endowment. These two references of 12th and 13th
¹ Delmal, which is the stronghold of the Jyeṣṭhimallas in Gujarat is a
village near Moḍherā. Moḍhera being a large town might have been responsible
for giving the name to these Brāhmaṇs. For further remarks see Supra, p. 8.

24
century A. D. suggest that Vajramuṣṭī mallas were already seen in south India
by this period. The inhabitants at this village adhere to the tradition that they
migrated from Moḍhera to this place.
The existence of mallas in mediaeval period is known from another im-
portant source, the Manasollasa, an encyclopaedic Sanskrit work by Somesvara
composed in the first half of the 12th century A.D. Somesvara, notes the four-
fold division of the mallas but is silent upon the place of their origin. Hence
this work shows the existence of Jyeṣṭhīmallas. The other contemporary
evidence suggests that some of them had already spread over larger area in
Western India.
In Gujarat proper Abhayatilaka Gaṇi (13th century A.D.), mentions
Āyudhajīvī Brāhmaṇas (Brahmins living on arms) in his commentary on
Dvyāśraya, a historical poem, by the great savant Hemacandra, describing the
annals of the Chaulukyas of Gujarat. Another tradition mentions that they
formed the vanguard in the army of Chaulukyas of Gujarat. These evidences
certainly suggest their existence and importance in that age.
There are interesting literary references to the Mallas in old Gujarati. In
Hansauli a work written in Samvat 1417 (1361 A.D.) the terms Mala and Jeṭhī
are used as synonyms. They are noted here as massagists.
In Samvat 1529 (1473 A.D.), Kāyastha Keshavadasa of Prabhās Pāṭaṇ
refers to Jeṭhīs in his Kṛṣṇalīlākāvya as wrestlers.
Bhīma in Samvat 1541 (1485 A.C.) mentions in his Harilīlāṣoḍaśakalā the
term Jeṭhī for the Mallas.
In 16th century A.D. the Jeṭhīmallas are referred to by Nākāra in a simile
to describe the fierce fight between Vālī and Sugrīva.
In North Gujarat the expression "The jeṭhīmallas are fighting" is used to
denote any severe duel between two fighters. This evidence is interesting to
show the popularity of wrestling of the mallas.
That these jeṭhīs living in 16th century in Gujarat were renowned athletes
could be very well proved by a reference in Ain-e-Akabari. Here there is a
specific mention of Gujarati Mallas alongwith persian and Turani Wrestlers.
These mallas were considered to do wonderful feats. Their pay varied from 70
to 450 dirhams (Ain-e-Akabari, Trans. H. Blochman, Calcutta, 1873, p. 253).
The association of Akber with these mallas is noted in a tradition current
in the Malla community. Akber knew the jyeṣṭhīmallas as Pahalwans, so he
arranged a wrestling bout between his wrestlers and the jyeṣṭhīmallas. One
Lākhāji was asked to wrestle, and he successfully defeated the wrestler of the
Emperor. Then Akber asked Lākhāji to uproot a Neem tree. He did it to

[Left page fragment]
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[Plate]
Fig. I
Worship of Nimbajādevī in the arena

Fig. 2
Wrestlers leaving the gymnasium

Fig . 3
Vajramuṣṭi Wrestling : Beginning
Fig. 4
Vajramuṣṭi Wrestling : Middle stage

[Left Page]

Fig. 5
Vajramuṣṭi Wrestling : End
Fig. 6
Vajramuṣṭi : the smaller Vajramuṣṭis are for games and the bigger for warfare.
[ By the Courtesy of Madras Museum. ]

[Right Page]

carry out the order o
this place, in the vill
In Gujarat the
their art upto the en
tinued in the 17th a
go as guards with m
part.
But in early 1
Jyeṣṭīmallas; so in
bad (Deccan). Th
of Vajramuṣṭi wres
extinction, if proper
served it so far.
Vajramuṣṭi Wrestler
The Vajramu
officer Panchamsin
Jeṭhī at Surapur.
and were looked af
The Vajramu
Daśerā and when
century in Baroda.
pitiable condition.
tion of a number o
up different profes
physical culture i
some of the practi
The training
Prior to this, they
are taught free-ha
These exercises in
running, jumping
used as warming
given in the form
They not only hel
as to develop the
There are sp
the waist and agi
physique for furt
¹ Mānikrā
4

25
carry out the order of the Emperor. But he died after uprooting the tree. At
this place, in the village Delmal, the temple of the Goddess Limbjā exists.
In Gujarat there is a strong evidence of the existence of the mallas and
their art upto the end of the 17th century but in the south the tradition con-
tinued in the 17th and the following centuries. In Gujarat the jeṭṭhīs used to
go as guards with marriage parties, and they were patronised by rulers in this
part.
But in early 19th century the Gaekwads began to give patronage to the
Jyeṣṭimallas; so in Baroda they were invited both from Delmāl and Hydera-
bad (Deccan). Those who came from Deccan have maintained the traditions
of Vajramuṣṭi wrestling upto this date, but the tradition is on the verge of
extinction, if proper steps are not taken to maintain the mallas, who have pre-
served it so far.
Vajramuṣṭi Wrestlers—their training and wrestling.
The Vajramuṣṭi wrestlers in Baroda were invited by Sayajirao I. His
officer Panchamsing Mohansing went to Kanakagiri and contacted Dharma
Jeṭhī at Surapur. According to the arrangements made they came to Baroda
and were looked after by Kanaka Jeṭhī.¹
The Vajramuṣṭi wrestling used to take place every year on Holi and
Daśerā and when asked by the king. This tradition continued for about a
century in Baroda. Now after the merger of the Baroda State, wrestlers are in
pitiable condition. They are leaving this profession and alongwith it a tradi-
tion of a number of centuries is dying out. Most of these wrestlers have taken
up different professions and the one of the traditional forms of wrestling and
physical culture is coming to an end. Here an effort is made to describe
some of the practices of the traditional mallas.
The training of boys start after they are ten or twelve years of age.
Prior to this, they are allowed to play according to their choice. The students
are taught free-hand exercises for muscular strength and developing stamina.
These exercises include a lot of leg work in the form of a variety of Baithakas,
running, jumping with a view to develop swiftness and strength. These are
used as warming up exercises also. Added to this leg work much arm work is
given in the form of Daṇḍas. Several varieties of these are also developed.
They not only help to develop the muscles of the arms but are so organised
as to develop the power of fingers, wrist, back, belly and side muscles.
There are special turning and twisting exercises to develop strength of
the waist and agility. These free hand exercises are devoted to condition the
physique for further heavier work.
¹ Māṇikrāo, ‘Baḍodyāṭīl Mallavidyā,’ p. 12.
4

26
As the student develops strength and agility, he is given the Mallasthamba.
The Mallasthamba is a smooth pillar of wood on which the boy mounts and
dismounts in various ways. These exercises develop stamina, strength and
agility to a considerable degree. Specially the power of turning and twisting the
body is considerably developed by this form of exercise. Its varieties known
as hanging Mallasthambha and Āntarpakad were also practised. For further
development of strength, weight-lifting is introduced by three different types
of weights. Two of them can be compared to modern dum-bells ( Nālī ) and
Bar-bells ( Saṁtolā ). The third is a round stone ( cāki ) which is put on the
neck. This has no modern parallel. The training with weights is given once or
twice a week or for strongly built students every alternate day. This weight
training used to develop good form and muscle power.
For strengthening shoulders, back and chest muscle heavy Indian clubs
were also used. They were used one in each hand or other type was grasped by
both hands. The latter is similar to Gadā and is known as Kārelā.
These are normal items of training. Swimming also formed a part in their
exercise, but it was never developed to a high competitive standard. The
swimming strokes that these wrestlers know are the dog paddle, breast stroke,
back stroke, side stroke and trudgen. Besides these they know floating. In
diving they know simple jump, header, somersault, and swallow.
After a student knew the normal exercises, they were trained for Vajramuṣṭi
wrestling. The point of winning is a proper catch of the hand carrying Vajra-
muṣṭi. This is effected by a leg catch or a hand catch or by combination. Many
swift movements are taught which save the fighter from receiving the blows of
vajramuṣṭi and inflicting blows on the opponent at the same time. Movements
for safeguarding the fighter from the catches of the opponent are also taught.
He is shown the catches that are useful to bring down the opponent.
This training is given in the wrestling arena, which is known as Akhāḍā.
Here fine earth is kept. It is dug and kept very soft and levelled. It is prepared
by bringing the earth, seiving it to remove small gravels, thorns or any other
injurious objects. Buttermilk, oil, red ochre and many other objects of organic
and inorganic nature are added to it. Water is sprinkled every third day.
After the training is over the wrestler gives public show. Vajramuṣṭi
wrestlers fight in the public show only twice a year on Holi and Daśerā, be-
cause the wrestling involves a lot of injury to the head and it often takes a long
time to heal the wounds and reconditioning. Occasionally this wrestling was
arranged on Christmas and for entertaining guests.
The public show is taken very seriously by these wrestlers; so they make
elaborate preparations mainly of religious nature.

27
On the day of wrestling their head is shaved clean, except for a small tuft
of hair on the top. They take bath of cold water. Red ochre is applied on
the head and Neem leaves are tied to the tuft of hair. The whole body is then
besmeared with red ochre and gorochan. This application according to their
belief is cooling. The vertical tilaka like marks are drawn on various parts of
their body. They are drawn on the forehead, hands, chest, sides, belly and legs.
Alongwith this preparations they look to good omens, consult the astro-
loger and worship their family deity, the Goddess Limbajā.
For this worship, in the akhāḍā a square platform of one and a quarter
cubit is made. In the centre of the cubit a heap about ½ cubit is raised in the
form of a Śivalinga. On it they plant a branch of Neem tree (Fig. 1). This is the
temporary abode of the Goddess. To the east of this, there is a small platform.
Here the dress and the weapons of the wrestlers are placed. The Brāhmin
priest worships the Goddess by means of incantations, lamp, offerings and in-
cense burning. Near this place two pots of water are also placed.
The wrestlers take their seat in front of this arena, but they face the con-
stellation of cancer. Here their bodies are besmeared with red ochre and
gorochan as already noted. They are given the trunks used for wrestling, before
besmearing their legs. After besmearing work is over they are given flower
garlands which are tied on their wrists and a large garland is put around the
neck. On the wrist red thread known as Rākhaḍī (protector) is tied.
They are then given three clothes to wear. One of them is the loin cloth
that is wound round their loin. The other is thrown over the left shoulder and
passes below right arm in Uttariya fashion. The third is the head wear. It is
adorned by floral bouquet, and finally the Vajramuṣṭi is given.
After this lamp is woven and praise of the Goddess is sung, the assembly
shouts the victory to the Goddess Limbajā and Govinda. Then the wrestlers
circumambulate the Goddess, they are given prasāda of rice and curds and leave
the Gymnesium with the accompaniment of music.
While leaving the gymnasium they see good omen. For this purpose young
maidens with water pots come in front (Fig. 2). They then break cocoanut
near the temple of Limbajā near the Gymnasium and go for public wrestling.
When they reach the place of wrestling, they rest there. When they are
asked to wrestle, they are taken to the area by a good wrestler. They do not
walk but go there jumping. Their movement is zig zag. The leader leaves them
at a distance of some 10 meters from the akhāḍā. The wrestler breaks a cocoanut
near the akhāḍā on a stone previously placed there. He removes his clothes and
wrestles with his competitor (Figs. 3, 4, 5).

28
After the wrestling is over, the wrestlers are given sweetened water with
lemon and then they return home.
When they come back the women receive them by showing them lamp and
taking ovāraṇā. The lamp is lit in a small vessel prepared out of flour. A cake
of flour is also put there.
At the end of this ceremony the wrestlers enter the gymnesium and worship
the goddess, the neem branch is removed and victory to the goddess and Govind
is sung. Prasad is distributed.
The injured wrestler is generally treated by the earth of the gymnesium.
The wrestling is almost gladiatorial, hence it is a life and death struggle for the
wrestlers. According to the present tradition no death occurs, but this might
not have been the case looking to the nature of the wrestling, the elaborate reli-
gious preparations and the protection that is sought by this means.
Economic conditions
The wrestlers were paid 75-100 Rupees as pay and were given quarters,
gymnastic apparatus etc. After the wrestling was over they received prizes in
cash or kind. For festivals also they received grant from the Government. The
State used to maintain them in old age by pensions. Their economic position
was good. Now their economic position is unsatisfactory and they are forced to
take up any job. They work as teachers, factory workers, farmers, police officers,
merchants and earn their bread.
Diet
It is interesting to note that the Vajramuṣṭi wrestlers of the present day
are vegetarians. They take cereals, wheat, rice, bajri or jowar accompanied by
pulses and green vegetables. They show special preference for milk, curds, ghee
and other milk products. They used to consume large quantities of dry fruits
both raw and as condiments in the food. Molasses are consumed with food or
even as a drink by adding it in water. Similarly they use sugar and citrus fruits
specially lemon.
The Mallapurāṇa however clearly indicates their non-vegetarian diet by
describing the qualities of a variety of meat. It is not known when the transi-
tion to pure vegetarian food habit took place.
They did not take either liquor or tobacco, and considered them injurious,
Modern evaluation of their exercises
The physical culture is meant for all round development of bodily strength
and stamina and swiftness in individuals. The highly specialised exercises
developed by these Indian wrestlers are well suited to meet these needs.
Their system of starting the exercises have much to recommend. They do
not take up the sudden and violent form of exercise in the beginning as such

29
work is detrimental to muscular power. They start by warming exercises and
then take to more strenous forms of physical activity. This is the procedure
of modern athletes who spend good time for warming up before taking to heavy
athletic activity.
The principles of stretching and contracting muscles and rotating joints,
turning and twisting of the body that are found to be useful by modern
standards are followed by these wrestlers, so that the exercises that were
developed by them are suitable even to-day.
The free-hand exercises developed by them are quite effective to build up
good muscle power and maintaining muscle tone.
Proper emphasis to massage and rest as well as nourishing diet is given so
that high standards of physical activity were achieved by them. They maintain-
ed good health and many of them had long life.
Vajramuṣṭi or Muṣṭi
To enhance the power of the blow that is delivered by bare hand or
clenched fist blunt stones or sticks, sharpened stones and a variety of daggers
are developed. In the blunt or sharpened category a tool grasped by clenched
first is named as Muṣṭi, and the handle of any instrument is also called Mutha
i.e. Muṣṭi.
These instruments held in fist for beating are known as Mauṣṭikam,
Muṣṭim, Mauṭṭhiya in ancient literature. The Nītiprakāśikā, a work of un-
known date, describes Mauṣṭikam,¹ and the movements associated with its use,
whereas in Viṣṇudharmottara,² a work ascribed to about 7th century A.D.,
Muṣṭi is noted alongwith other weapons of Viṣṇu and Praśnavyākaraṇa³ a still
earlier work assigned to about 3-4th century A.D. the word Mauthiya is used in
the sense of a weapon.
These references clearly indicate that Muṣṭi was a weapon but its nature
is not clear from the commentaries on it. Oppert had translated the world as
fist word, but the meaning of it is vague as a sword cannot be so short.
Whether he meant by the term a small dagger or such instrument cannot be
ascertained. He has been followed by V. R. R. Dikshitar, J. C. Jain and other
scholars. This explanation does not clarify the word; hence a study of boxing
and allied wrestling system of India requires careful investigation, for proper
understanding of the instruments as boxing is known as Muṣṭi Yuddha i.e.
either fight with fist or fight with the Muṣṭi-weapon.
¹ Nītiprakāśikā, Adhyaya V, 40-44.
² Viṣṇudharmottaram, III Khaṇḍa, 87.27.
³ Praśnavyākaraṇa Sūtra 4, Edited by Pandit Mafatlal Zaverchand,
Ahmedabad, V. S. 1993, p. 18.