प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

IV] SIXTY-FOUR KALĀS 307
Sixty-four Kalas : According to Vātsyāyana I.3.16,
the following are the traditional sixty-four Kalās, which
a cultured lady was expected to master :—
१ गीतम् २ वाद्यम् ३ नृत्यम् ४ आलेख्यम् ५ विशेषकच्छेद्यम्
६ तण्डुलकुसुमवलिविकाराः ७ पुष्पास्तरणम् ८ दशनवसनांगरागः ९ मणि-
भूमिकामे १० शयनरचनम् ११ उदकवाथम् १२ उदकाघातः १३ चित्राश्च
योगाः १४ माल्यग्रथनविकल्पाः १५ शेखरकापीडयोजनम् १६ नेपथ्यप्रयोगाः
१७ कर्णपत्रभंगाः १८ गन्धयुक्तिः १९ भूषणयोजनम् २० ऐन्द्रजालाः २१
कौचुमाराश्च योगाः २२ हस्तलाघवम् २३ विचित्रशाकयूषभक्ष्यविकारक्रिया
२४ पानकरसरागासवयोजनम् २५ सूचीवानकर्माणि २६ सूत्रक्रीडा २७ वीणा-
डमरुकवाद्यानि २८ प्रहेलिका २९ प्रतिमाला ३० दुर्वाचकयोगाः ३१ पुस्तक-
वाचनम् ३२।नाटकाख्यायिकादर्शनम् ३३ काव्यसमस्यापूरणम् ३४ पट्टिका-
वेत्रवानविकल्पः ३५ तक्षकर्माणि ३६ तक्षणम् ३७ वास्तुविद्या ३८ रूप्य-
रत्नपरीक्षा ३९ धातुवादः ४० मणिरागाकरज्ञानम् ४१ वृक्षायुर्वेद‌योगाः
४२ मेषकुक्कुटलावकयुद्धविधिः ४३ शुकसारिकाप्रलापनम् ४४ उत्साद्ने
संवाहने केशमर्दने च कौशलम् ४५ अक्षरमुष्टिकाकथनम् ४६ म्लेच्छित-
विकल्पाः ४७ देशभाषाविज्ञानम् ४८ पुष्पशटिका ४९ निमित्तज्ञानम् ५०
यन्त्रमातृका ५१ धारणामातृका ५२ सम्पाठ्यम् ५३ मानसीकाव्यक्रियाः
५४ अभिधानकोशः ५५ छन्दोज्ञानम् ५६ क्रियाकल्पः ५७ छलितकयोगाः
५८ वस्त्रगोपनानि ५९ द्यूतविशेषः ६० आकर्षंक्रीडा ६१ बालकीडनकानि
६२-४ वैनयिकीनां वैजयिकीनां व्यायामकीनां च विद्यानां।ज्ञानम्।
Owing to want of space it is not possible to
explain the meaning of each of the 64 kalās enume-
rated above. It would suffice to say that Nos. 23-4
refer to the art of cooking, Nos. 5, 8, 15 and 44 to
personal toilette of women requiring skill in the use
of ointments for the body, paints for the teeth, etc.
Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 27 enumerate fine arts like music,
dancing and painting. Arts necessary for home and
personal decorations are mentioned in Nos. 6, 7, 9, 10
14-19, 48 and 58 and they include garland making,
decoration of the floor, the preparation of the bed,

308 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App.
proper use and care of dress and ornaments etc.
Women, who were usually fond of ornaments, were
expected to be able to appreciate correctly the value
and quality of the different varieties of gold, etc, and
Nos. 38-40 refer to the capacity in this connection.
Arts useful for the housewife like sewing, patching,
elementary carpentry, repairs of household tools and
articles are mentioned in Nos: 25,33,35-6,37,41,44, and
49. Literary efficiency and skill of different variety
is presupposed by Nos. 28-31,33,45-47 and 51-57.
They require women to be skilled in reading, writing,
understanding different languages, composing poems,
understanding dramas, etc. Nos. 12 and 64 refer to
different physical exercises and Nos. 11,20,22,26,42,
43,57,59,60 mention recreations for utilising leisure
hours. The latter include magic, sleights of hand,
dyūta etc. No. 61 requires every woman to know how
to prepare toys for children.
It will be thus seen that the 64 arts, which a
woman was expected to master, endowed her with a
healthy physique, taught her all arts necessary for an
economic and an efficient housewife and made her a
cultured companion of her husband, who could
introduce her to any company of educated men and
women. It is obvious that only ladies in higher
sections of society could have got proficiency in 64
arts. What was their percentage we do not know.

APPENDIX V
Technical terms and dates of authors, works
and kings.
(A. = Author ; K. = King ; D. = Date ; Q. = Queen)
Agrahâra ; a village of learned Brahmana colonists.
Alberuni ; Arabic A., c. 1025 A. D.
Āpastamba D S. ; c. 400 B. C.
Arthasâstra of Kauṭilya, c. 300 B. C.
Asramas : four stages of life.
Bâṇa ; poet, c. 625 A. D.
Brâhmaṇa literature consists of explanations of and commentaries on the Vedas ; c. 1500 B.C. to 1000 B. C.
Bhâskarâchârya : A. ; c. 1150 A-D.
Bhavabhûti ; poet ; c. 725 A. D.
Bhoja ; Paramara king, c. 1025 A.D.
Brahmachâri ; student observing celibacy.
Brahmacharya, the state of a Brahmachâri.
Buddha died in c 487 B. C.
Châlukya Dynasty, Later ; 973 to A D.
Charaka ; An author on medicine, c 80 A. D.
Chandragupta Maurya, c. 300 B.C.
Chandragupta Gupta ; c. 400 A.D.
Divâkarasena ; sage, c. 610 A. D.
Diddâ ; Q. c. 1000 A. D.
Dharmasûtras ; c. 600 B. C. to 400 B. C.
Fa Hsien ; Chinese pilgrim in India in c. 400 A. D.
Gâthâsaptaśatî ; c. 4th century A. D.
Gauḍapâda ; philosopher, c. 700 A. D.
Gautama D S., c. 400 B. C.
Gâyatrî Mantra ; see p. 278.
Gṛihyasûtras ; c. 700 B. C. to 500 B. C.
Gupta age ; c. 300 to 500 A. D.
Gurukula, see p. 132.
Harsha ; K. ; 606-647 A. D.
Harshacharit, c. 625 A. D.
Hînayâna ; a branch of Buddhism, advocating its earlier philosophy. Its literature is mostly in Pali.
Homa ; sacrifice to gods.
Indo-Iranian age ; c. 2500 B. C.
Ikshvâku dynasty of Āndhra country, c. 200 A. D.
I-sing ; Chinese traveller in India in c. 675 A. D.
Janaka ; K. in Upanishads ; c. 1200 B. C.
Jâtaka period ; c. 500 B. C.
Jayachandra ; K, c. 1200 B. C.
Kadamba dynasty ; c. 300 A. D. to 600 A. D.
Kâlidâsa ; 4th century A. D. according to some and 1st century B. C. according to others.
Kanishka ; K. c. 100 A. D.
Kaṇva Dynasty ; c. 50 B. C.
Karman theory holds that we become what we deserve to be by our past actions.
Katha republic : c. 300 B. C.
Kauṭilya ; author of the Arthaśâstra ; c. 300 B. C.
Kumâragupta ; K. ; c. 425 A. D.
Lakshmaṇasena : K. of Bengal ; c. 1200 A. D.
Mahâyâna : a later school of Buddhism, which deified the

310 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA
Buddha and wrote its works
in Sanskrit.
Mahâbhârata; book; c. 300 B. C.
Mahâbhârata war; c. 1400 B. C.
Mâlatîmâdhava drâma; c. 725 A.D.
Mâlava republic; c. 300 B. C. to 200 A. D.
Maṇḍanamiśra; A. c. 800 A D.
Mantra; sacred verse or formula.
Manusmṛiti; c. 300 B. C.
Mauryan age; 325 to 190 B. C.
Milindapañha a book: c. 1st century B. C. or A. D.
Mîmânsâ school of philosophy deals with Vedic exegis and sacrifices.
Muñja; K. c. 980 A. D.
Nâgârjuna; Mahâyâna philosopher, c. 150 A. D.
Naishṭhika Brahmachâri observed celibacy to the end of his life.
Nirukta; a work on Vedic exegis; c. 700 B. C.
Nyâya philosophy mainly deals with the problems of logic.
Pallava dynasty; c. 300 to 750 A. D.
Pâṇini; famous grammarian; c. 6th century B. C.
Pâthaśâla; Sanskrit school.
Patwari; village accountant.
Punarjanma; rebirth
Purâṇas were given their present form in c. 350 A. D., though there are some later additions too.
Râmâyaṇa; c. 200 B C.
Râjaśekhara; poet; c. 900 A. D.
Śâlivâhana dynasty; also known as Sâtavâhana dynasty c. 200 B. C. to 200 A. D.
Samâvartana ceremony: at the end of the education course.
Saṁgha; Buddhist order of monks.
Sâṁkhya philosophy is atheistic and advocates that matter and souls are the two entities.
Sandhyâ; morning and evening Vedic prayer.
Śaṅkarâchârya, the great Advaitic philosopher; c. 800 A. D.
Saṁskâra; ritual.
Śibi republic in c. 300 B. C.
Śindhurâja; K. c. 1000 A. D.
Smṛitis; metrical books on sacred law; c. 300 B. C. to 800 A. D.
Snâna; see Samâvartana.
Śrâddha; oblations offered to a dead ancestor on the date of his death.
Sugandhâ; Q. of Kashmir, c. 900 A. D.
Śuṅga dynasty; c. 190 to 80 B.C.
Suśruta; a work on medicine.
Tol; a Sanskrit school on traditional lines.
Upâkarma; see App. I C.
Upanayana ceremony for initiating a student into Vedic studies.
Upanishadic period; c. 1200 to 800 B. C.
Uttararâmacharit drama; c. 725 A. D.
Utsarjana; see App. I. C.
Vaiśeshika philosophy mainly deals with atomism and logic.
Vasubandhu; Mahâyâna philosopher, c. 300 A. D.
Vedâṅgas; see App. IV.
Vedānta philosophy; mainly based on Upanishads and amplified by Śaṅkara, Râmânuja and others.
Vikramâditya VI, Châlukya emperor, c. 1100 A. D.
Vrata; a religious vow.
Yama Smṛiti; c. 7th century A.D.
Yoga philosophy concentrates on meditation and Prâṇâyâma.
Yuan Chwang: Chinese pilgrim in India in c. 640 A. D.

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 311
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY.
RELIGIOUS SOURCES.
Vedas, Brāhmaṇas, Upanishads, Dharmasūtras,
Gṛihyasūtras, Smṛitis, Buddhist Tripiṭakas and Jātakas.
Vīramitrodaya of Mitramiśra; Jīvananda's edition;
Smṛitichandrikā of Devaṇabhaṭṭa; Mysore University
edition.
LITERARY SOURCES.
Sanskrit dramas and poems referred to in the
text and notes.
TECHNICAL WORKS.
Charaka and Suśruta Saṁhitās.
Aryabhaṭīya of Aryabhaṭa.
Bṛihatsaṁhitā of Varāhamihira.
Dhanurvedasaṁhitā of Vasiṣhṭha, edited by
Hardayalu Swami, Meerut, 1899.
ARCHÆOLOGICAL SOURCES.
Ancient Indian inscriptions as published in various
archæological reports and journals like Epigraphia
Indica, Indian Antiquary, etc.
South Indian Epigraphy Reports.
FOREIGN SOURCES.
M'Crindle, Ancient India as described by Magas-
thenes and Arrian, Calcutta, 1926.
M'Crindle, The Invasion of India by Alexander
the Great. Westminister, 1896.
Legge, Record of Buddhist Kingdoms, by Fa-
Hsien, Oxford, 1886.
Watters, On Yuan Chwang's Travells in India,
Vols. I and II, London, 1904-5.

312 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA
Beal, Life of Hiuen Tsiang by Shaman Hwui Li,
London, 1911 (New Edition).
Takakusu, A Record of the Buddhist Religion by
Itsing. Oxford 1896.
Sachau, Alberuni's India, Vols. I and II, London
1888.
Nadvi, Arab aur Bharat ke Sambandha, Hindi
translation, Hindustani Academy, Allahabad.
Cordier, Yule's Travells of Marco Polo, London,
1926.
Bernier, Travells in the Mogul Empire, Oxford,
1914.
MODERN WORKS.
(1) GENERAL.
Macdonel and Keith, Vedic Index of Names and
Subjects, London, 1912.
Bloomfield, Rig-Veda Repitions. Harvard Oriental
Series, 1916.
V. A. Smith, Asoka, 3rd edition. Oxford, 1909.
Vidyabhushana, A History of Indian Logic,
Calcutta, 1921.
Altekar, The Rāshtrakūṭas and their Times.
Poona, 1934.
Altekar, Position of Women in Hindu Civilisation,
1938.
(2) BOOKS ON EDUCATION.
Keay, Ancient and Later Indian Education,
Oxford.
Das, The Educational System of the Ancient
Hindus, Calcutta, 1930,
Bokil, A History of Education in India, Vol, I,
Bombay, 1925.
Venkatesvaram, Indian Culture through the Ages,

MODERN WORKS 313
Vol. I. Education and the Propagation of Culture,
Mysore University, 1928.
Bose, Indian Teachers of the Buddhist Universities,
Madras, 1925.
S. C. Das, Indian Pandits in the Land of Snow.
Calcutta, 1893.
Report of the Education Commission. 1882, along
with the reports of the Provincial Committees.
Munroe, A Text-book of the History of Education.
Graves, A History of Education.
Oshea—Social Development and Education.
Nunn—Education, its Data and first Principles.
Adam's Reports—Report on Vernacular Education
in Bengal, 1835-8.
J. M. Sen, History of Elementary Education in
India, 1933. Book Company, Calcutta,
H. Staunton : The Great Schools of England,
London, 1877.
H. A. Stark :—Vernacular Education in Bengal
from 1813-1912, Calcutta 1916.
R. A. Quick :—Essays on Educational Reformers.
1929.
Henderson :—Text-book in the Principles of
Education.
Judd :—Introduction to the Scientific Study of
Education.
Thorndik :—Educational Psychology.
Davidson :—Education of the Greek People.
Driver :—Greek Education.

INDEX
Admission procedure 181.
Admission test 81-2, 118.
Agrahāra viilages as centres of education. 139-42.
'Aims of education ; 8-20 ; how far achieved, 242-49.
Aksharasvikaraṇa, a Sanskâra 265-68.
Alberuni, on Brahmagupta's dishonesty, 252 ; on Hindu scholarship, 256-7, 262 ; on vernacular education, 260.
Al-Idrisi, on Indian character, 245.
Alms, for students, compulsory for householders. 93
Annaprāśana, a Sanskâra, 266.
Apprentice system, 198-200 ; in Europe, 200, n. 2.
Arabs, borrow Hindu medicine system, 188 ; on Hindu character, 245.
Arts and crafts, training in, 198-202, attitude towards, 127-8, 258.
Āryabhaṭa on eclipses, 252-3.
Āśramas as education centres, 32-3
Association, 29-30.
Ayurvedic Upanayana 289-91.
Astronomy and astrology, 152, 252-3
B
Begging, see under Bhikshā-charaṇa.
Benares, as education centre, 110-114.
Bhikshā, for students, compulsory for householders, 93.
Bhikshācharaṇa, how far real in daily life, 64-66 ; why prescribed, 66 ; when a disgrace, 65.
Boarding arrangements, 76
Brahmanchāri, his paraphernalia, 275-6. See under Student for further information.
Brahmacharya, its duration, 89 ; rules of, 66-8.
Brahmagupta, his intellectual dishonesty, 252-3.
Brahmanas, and Veda teaching, 40 ; as teachers of non-vedic subjects, 41 ; as teachers, consequences, 249-50.
Buddhism and education, 225- 33.
Buddhist Universities, Organisation of, 73-4.
Buildings of schools and colleges, 75-6.
C
Capitals, as education centres, 103.
Caste system, its influence on education, 40-6; and Buddhism, 46-7. and Upanayana time, 272-3 ; and Sâvitrī Mantra, 278-9 ; and professions, 40-1.
Character, formation of, 10-11, 66-7 ; Indian, estimate of, 244-5.
Chaula and primary education, 267.
Chhurikābandha, 292-3.
Civic duties, and education, 248-9.
Classes, their strength, 82-3.
Co-education, 211.
College session, its duration, 85-6.
Colleges as organised institutions, non-existent in early times, 70-2 and at Taxila, 106 and Benares, 112 ; but existing at Nâlandâ, 114-6 ; Vikramasîlâ, 126-9 ; Ennāyirum, 132-3 ; Tirumukkudul, 133 ; Tiruvorriyur, 134 ; Salotgi, 130-2.
Commercial education, 195-7.
Corporal punishment, 27-28.
Courses, their duration, 89-92 ; their organisation, 88-89-96.
Cramming, 161.
Creative vein disappears, 254-5.

INDEX 315

[Left Column]
Culture, preservation of, as an aim
of education, 17-19; 247-8.
Curriculum, literary in early
Vedic period, 143-5; in late
Vedic period 145-6; during
1000 B. C to c. I A. D., 147-9;
during 1-1200 A. D., 149-57;
in Buddhist institutions, 155-7,
230-1.
D
Daṇḍa of the Brahmachārī, 280
Debates, 163.
Debts, three 18-92.
Degrees, 168-9.
Dhanurvedic Upanayana, 291.
Dharmaśāstra age, education in,
238-40.
Discipline, rules of, 66-9.
Doctors, status of, 184-189.
E
Eclipse, 252-3.
Education, conception of, 3-8;
Aims of, 8-20; Aims of, else-
where, 20-1; and how far achie-
ved 243-49: when to commence,
26, 272-3; to whom to be given
and to whom not, 53-4; how
far free, 78-81; in post-college
life, 26-7; through private
individuals for a long time, 71;
system, not other-worldly, 249;
characterised by depth, but
not equally by breadth, 261;
religious bias in, in India and
Europe, 249; effect of religion's
influence in India, 249-253; and
in Europe 254; system becomes
degenerated, 262-3; general esti-
mate, 263-4; centres, varieties
of, 103; primary, female and
useful see under Primary edu-
cation, Female education and
Useful education respectively.
Educational finance, 92-102:
Educational institutes, rise of 72
Ennayiram temple college, 132-3.
Examinations, 167-9.

[Right Column]
F
Family, and education, 33-6.
Fees, 78-81; in ancient Greece
78n. 2
Female education and family, 35;
two classes of girl students,
207; Coeducation, 211; Upa-
nayana and Vedic studies of
girls, 204-6, 212-5; attainments
of lady scholars, 207-8, and
Buddhism 209, 220, 231; extent
of, 212; in cultured families,
217; in ordinary families, 219;
in ruling families 220-2;
and economic independence,
222-3; in Muslim period, 223-4;
and Jainism, 244.
Fine arts, training in, 200-1; and
women, 217.
Foreign scholarship, attitude to-
wards, 257;
Foreign travel, 257
Forests, as centres of education,
32-3;
G
Gāyatrī Mantra, 278-9.
Girdle, its significance, 275.
Government, recruits scholars for
its posts, 98; patronises distin-
guished scholars and colleges,
97: gives land grants 97;
cash grants, 98, taxation exem-
ptions and other concessions to
scholars, 98-99; does not control
education, 99-100; in the west,
and education, 100-101.
Grammar study, 152-3.
Greek education at Taxila, 105-6.
Greeks on Hindu character, 244.
Gṛihaṇishkramaṇa, a Saṅskāra,
266.
Guilds, in India and useful educa-
tion, 196-7.
Guru, see under teacher.
Gurudakshiṇā, 78-80;
Gurukula system, 30-2.

316 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA
H
Habit, importance of, 28.
Harun Khalifa, invites Hindu
doctors, 188.
Hereditary professions, their effect
on education, 197.
Heritage, ancient, its preservation,
an aim of education, 17-18. 247
Holidays, 86-88.
Home education, 33-5.
Home work, 63.
Hospitals, 186-7; combined with
colleges, 133-135.
Hours of school, 33-5.
I
Ibn Batuta, on Hindu character,
245.
Income of teachers, 56-7.
Individual attention, 164.
Industrial training, attitude to-
wards, 197-8; efficiency of, 202;
degenerates in medieval times,
203.
Interdining, 40.
Intellect, when creative, 254;
when assimilative, 255;
J
Jesuitical educatiou, 256.
Judgment, power of, in students,
15.
K
Kālās, 64, App. IV.
Kalas college, 189.
Karman theory, 37.
Kharag-bandhāi, 293.
Kindergarden stage, 171.
Kings, their duty to patronise
learning, 96; specific instances
of, as patrons of learning, 97;
assumed no patronising atti-
tude, 100; see also under
Government.
Kshatriyas, their Upanayana and
Vedic studies, 43.
L
Lady teachers, 210.
Laymen, education of, 155.
Learning, respect for, 95-6.
Libraries, 119, 125, 158.
Life-long students, 91-2.
Limitation, law of, and students,
99.
Literacy, extent of, 174, 179, 181;
in ancient Athens and Sparta
and medieval Europe. 259.
Logic, courses in, 154.
Liither, on state's duty to help
education, 101; first encourages
but later discourage reason, 254.
M
Malkapuram temple college, 135-6.
Marco Polo, on Indian character.
245
Marriage time, 215-6; and student
life, 25.
Masses, education sf, 259.
Medhājanana, a ritual, 281.
Medical education, 184-90; and
women, 219.
Megasthenes, on Indian character,
244.
Mekhalā, 275.
Method of teaching, see under
Teaching.
Middle Ages, a period of intel-
lectual repression, 255-6.
Military education, 190-5.
Monastic colleges, administration
of, 73-4, 121.
Monasteries, as centres of educa-
tion, 73-4. 114-29; in Europe
and education, 73.
Monitorial system, 165-6.
Monks, courses for, 156.
Muslim rule, its effect on Hindu
education, 183, 262-8.
N
Naishthika Brahmachāri, 91-2.
Nālandā University, 114,123; its
rise and progress, 114-5; its

INDEX 317

[Left Column]

lay-out 115;, boarding arrange-
ments, 116; number of students,
117, its curriculum, 120; its
standard of admission, 118;
its libraries, 119; its fame in
Java and Tibet, 122; how
destroyed, 123.
Night classes, 84-5.
Nature and Nurture, their influence
on education, 86-9.
Non-Brāhmaṇas, as Vedic teachers
40.
O
Originality disappears, 255.
P
Pauranic age, education in, 240-2.
Personality, development of, as
aim of education, 12-18, 246-7.
Peshwa, his help for education, 98.
Philosophy, study of, 154.
Physical exercises, 63.
Physical punishment, 27-8.
Pitṛiṛiṇa theory, and education, 18.
Poetesses, 217-8.
Poetry course, the study in, 153.
Prakrit, during 200 B.C.—300 A.D.
151-2; development of, arrested,
152; in primary education, 180;
effect of the neglect of, 259-260.
Pre-school education, 38-4.
Priests as teachers, in India, 40;
in Europe, 78.
Primary education, upto 1000 B.C.
171-2; during 1000-200 B. C.,
172-5; during 200 B. C.—800
A. D. 175-80; during 800 A. D.
—1200 A. D., 180-83; why not
once important, 170; and
Buddhism, 231.
Principles of education, 22-35.
Private teachers, 71; and fees, 79.
Promotions, 164-167.
Punishment, physical, limitation
on, 27-8.
Punjab, condition of education in,
at c. 1850 A. D., 95-6.

[Right Column]

Purāṇas, study of, 153-4. reverence
for, 252.
Princes, education of, 193-4.
Princesses, education of, 220-2.
R
Raghu, a king, his concern for
education, 80 n. 2.
Rāhu-Ketu theory of eclipses,
252-3.
Rationalism, properly cultivated
in early times, 250; discouraged
in later days, 251; its effect
on research, 252; discouraged
in Europe also in medieval
times, 254.
Religion, its influence on education,
9; gives rise to educational
rituals like Vidyārambha, 265;
Upanayana, 268; Upākarma,
283; does not make education
other-worldly, 249; helps edu-
cation, 94-5, 269; discourages
reason, 250-4; discourages
secular studies, 249-50;
Reservation of seats for subjects
in colleges, 132-34.
Rituals, educational, App. I
Routine, importance of, 29.
S
Sacred Thread, App. II.
Salaries of teachers, 183; 57-58.
Salotgi temple college, 130-2.
Samāvartana, a privilege of the
few, but later extended to all
287-8; ceremony described, 288;
of Dhanurveda students, 292-3.
Sanskrit, ascendancy of, 151; its
effect on Prakrits, 151-2 and
on the spread of education
259-60; courses in, 152-3.
Sarvajñapura Agrahāra college
189.
Sattras for the poor students, 94.
Sāvitrī-Mantra, 278-9.
School-hours, 38.
Self-confidence and students, 13-4

318 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA

Self-respect encouraged in students,
13.
Self-restraint and student life, 14.
Shadaṅgas, 305.
Sippas or branches of useful edu-
cation, 306.
Ship-building, 202.
Smṛiti age, education in, 149-57.
Smṛitis, study of, 153; reverence
for, 252,
Snāna, see under Samāvartana,
Social efficiency, as aim of edu-
cation, 15-16.
Society, its help for education,
93-5; makes provision for poor
students; 312-3.
Sources, 2-3.
Śrāvaṇi, why so called, see under
Upākarma.
Staff of the students, 280.
State, see under Government.
Strabo on Indian character, 244.
Spinning, and women, 222-3.
Students, their duties towards
teachers, 58-60; how far
working in their teachers'
houses, 59-60; their relation'
with their teachers in after-
life, 62; their marriages with
teacher's daughters, 61-2; daily
routine of their life, 62-4;
their duty to beg, how far
discharged, 64-66; general rules
for their life, 66-8; how far
staying with their teachers,
30-1; boarding arrangements
for, 76; and marriage, 25,
215-6; free boardings for, 116,
182, 185.
Shudras, and Vedic studies, 44-5.
Surgery, training in, 185-6.
Svetaketu on post-collegiate edu-
cation, 284.

T

Taxila, as centre of education,
104-10; its early history, 104;
Greek influence over, 105-6;
not a University of the modern
type, 106; its all-India fame,
107-8; boarding arrangements,
108; subjects taught at, 109;
how destroyed, 109-10.
Taxation, exemption from, 99.
Teacher, his importance, 48; re-
garded as a spiritual father, 49;
why venerated, 50, his training,
51-2; qualifications of, 52;
usually a householder, 33; his
income, 56-8; 133-4; his caste,
41-2; his relations with stu
dents, 60-1; must not delay-
education, 58; must not sti
pulate for fees, 78; must take
filial care of students, 55; must
not with-hold anything from
students, 54; domestic work
in his house, 59; his high code
of honour, 58; his power of
inflicting physical punishment,
27-8; daughters of, marrying
students, 61-2, Women as, 210.
Teaching, method of, in Vedic
period, 144-146; 148; in Vedic
classes, 158-9 in primary
schools, 176; the place of
cramming in, 161; and of
exposition, 162-3, individual
attention in, 164; senior stu-
dents' help in, 165.
Temple Colleges, 74, 130-8;
Text books, competition for, 156-7.
Tibet and Nâlandâ scholars, 122,
and Vikramasîlâ scholars, 126.
Tīrthas as centres of education,
104.
Tirumukkudal temple college, 133.
Tiruvorriyur temple college, 134.
Tols, 141,
Tonsure, 267.
Training colleges for teachers, 51.
Treasure-trove laws, 99.

U

Ugrabhūti, his efforts to get his
book prescribed, 156.

INDEX 319
Universities, 72-4. 117.
Upādhyāyā, 210.
Upākarma, at the beginning of the
college term, 282-3; why ex-
tended to all, 284-5; description
of, 285-6; and the sacred
thread, 286.
Upanayana, its antiquity, 270;
meaning of. 268-9; when per-
formed, 272; performed by
married men, 268-9; a simple
ritual, 270; when and why made
compulsory 269; as the second
birth, 49 m; why prescribed for
the dumb and deaf, 269; why
prescribed as a Prāyaśchitta, 269
of Asvattha tree, 270; critical
survey of, 274-8; significance of;
the presentation to deities in,
276, presentation to the teacher
in, 277; teaching of the Sāvitrī
mantra in, 278; significance of
the whole ritual, 281-2; of
Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, 43;
of women, 206, 213; for
Āyurveda students, 289; for
Dhanurveda students, 291.
Upanishad age, education in, 147-9,
236 8.
Utsarjana ceremony, at the end
of the session, 286-7.
V
Vacation, 85-6.
Vaishyas, their Upanayana and
Vedic studies, 43.
Valabhi as a centre of education,
123-5.
Varâhamibira on eclipses; 252-3: on
Greeks' achievements in astro-
nomy, 256.
Vedic study, how far a mere
cramming. 144-8; its nature in
different periods, 144-147, 149;
falling into background, 149;
during 1-1200 A. D. 149-50;
and Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and
Shudras, 43-44.
Vernaculars, education in, 259-60;
in Europe, 260,
Veterinary science, 190.
Vidyās, 14, App. IV.
Vidyārambha Sanskāra, 265-8.
Vikramasīlā Monastic college, 125-9
W
Wastage in Education, 264.
Women, status of, 212-14; Upana-
yana of, 206; 213; as teachers,
210; as poetesses 217-18; as
Vedic seers, 205; as governors,
221; and medical studies,
219; scholars mentioned in
Brahmayajña, 208; literacy
among 212, 223-4; age at the
marriage of, 215; and military
training, 221, their economic
position, 222.
Work, in teachers' houses, 59-60.
Y
Yajñopavīta, originally an upper
garment of skin, then of cloth,
294-5; how supplanted by the
thread, 296; could be removed,
298.
Yuan Chwang, on Indian charac-
ter 244-5.
Z
Zemandars, and Sanskrit Pâtha-
sâlâs, 141.

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ABBREVIATIONS AND TRANSLITERATION
ABBREVIATIONS
A. D. S. Āpastamba Dharma Sūtra
A. G. S. Āpastamba Gṛiha Sūtra
A. N. Aṅguttara Nikāya
Ait. Ar. Aitareya Āraṇyaka
Alberuni Sachau, Alberuni's India
Aś. Gr. S. Āśvalāyana Gṛihya Sūtra
A. S. R. Archæological Survey of India, Annual
Reports, New Series
A. S. W. I. Archæological Survey of Western
India, Reports of.
A. V. Atharvaveda
B. D. S. Baudhāyana Dharma Sūtra
Bau. Gr. S. Baudhāyana Gṛihya Sūtra
Beal, Life. Life of Hiuen Tsiang
Bh. Gr. S. Bhāradvāja Gṛihya Sūtra
Bṛ. Up. Bṛihadāraṇyaka Upanishad
Ch. Up. Chhāndogya Upanishad
Dr. Gr. S. Drāhyāyaṇa Gṛihya Sūtra
E. C. Epigraphia Carnatica
E. I. Epigraphia Indica
Elliot, History Elliot's History of India, as told by
its historians, Vols. I-2, London,
1870.
Go. Br. Gopatha Brāhmaṇa
Go. Gr. S. Gobhila Gṛihya Sūtra
Hi. Gr. S. Hiraṇyakeśi Gṛihya Sūtra
I. A. Indian Antiquity
I. M. P. Inscriptions from Madras Presidency.
I.-tsing Record of the Western World by
I-tsing, edited by Takakusu

viii
J. A. S. B. Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal
J.B.B.R.A.S. Journal of the Bombay Branch of the
Royal Asiatic Society.
J. B. O. R. S Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Re-
search Society
Jai. Gr. S. Jaimini Gṛihya Sūtra
Jai. Up. Br. Jaimini Upanishad Brāhmaṇa
K. M. Kāvyamīmānsā
Kh. Gr. S. Khādira Gṛihya Sūtra
Kū. P. Kūrma Purāṇa
K. S. Kāṭhaka Saṁhitā
Kss. Kathāsaritsāgara
K. UP. Kaṭhopanishad
Ma. Gr. S. Mānava Gṛihya Sūtra
M. A. S. I. Memoirs of the Archæological Survey of
India
Mbh. Mahābhārata
Mil. Pan. Milinda Pañha (S. B. E. edition)
M. N. Majjhima Nikāya
M. S. Maitrāyaṇīya Saṁhitā
Mu. Up. Muṇḍakopanishad
M. V. Mahāvagga
N. S. Nītiśataka
P. Gr. S. Pāraskara Gṛihya Sūtra
Par. Ma. Mādhava's commentary on Parāśara
Smṛiti
P. M. Pūrva Mīmānsā
Pr. Up. Praśnopanishad
R. V. Ṛig-veda
Sachau Alberuni's India, edited by Sachau
Śānti P: Śānti Parvan of the Mahābhārata
Sāraṅga. P. Sāraṅgadhara Padhati
Ś. Br. Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa
S. B. E. Sacred Books of the East Series

ix
SCS. Smṛitichandrikā, Sanskāra Kāṇḍa
S. I. E. R. Annual Reports of South Indian
Epigraphy.
Tai. Ar. Taittirīya Āraṇyaka
Tai. Br. Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa
T. S. Taittirīya Saṁhitā
Tai Up. Taittirīya Upanishad
V. D. S. Vasishṭha Dharma Sūtra
Va. Gr. S. Varāha Gṛihya Sūtra
Vaj. Sam. Vājasaneya Saṁhitā
Vi. Dh. S. Vishṇu Dharma Sūtra or Vishṇu Smṛiti
VMS. Vīramitrodaya, Saṁskāra-prakāśa
Watters, Watters, on Yuan Chwang's Travels
Yaj. Yājñavalkya-Smṛiti
S. R. S. Subhāshita-Ratna-Sandoha
S. R. B. Subhāshita-Ratna-Bhāṇḍāra
TRANSLITERATION
Current words like Brahmana, Vaishya or Shudra
and modern names like Sivaji and Paithan are written
usually without diacritical marks.
Sanskrit, Prākrit and Pāli words are transliterated
according to the following scheme.
आ ā ई ī ऊ ū ऋ ṛi विसर्ग ḥ ङ् ṅ च ch छ chh ञ ñ ट ṭ ठ ṭh
ड ḍ ढ ḍh ण ṇ श ś ष sh स s ह h ळ ḷ क्ष kṣh ज्ञ jñ.
Sometimes the long vowel is denoted also by the
mark ^ above it ; e. g. आ by â.

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