those are indications that on penetrating further through
the layers the rock beneath will contain abundant water.
304. If close to the east of a jambu tree there is an ant
hill, then to the southern side of the tree there is plenty
of water at the depth of two man-heights.
305. At that spot after digging the depth equivalent to
half a man-height if there are indications of a fish (?),
the rock is of the color of a pigeon, and the soil is blue,
there is ample water lasting for a long period.
306. In a land where a nirgundi tree is surrounded by
ant hills, at a distance of three hands to the south a
current of continuous sweet water will be seen at the
depth of two and quarter man-height.
307. There, after digging the depth of half the man-
height a rohita fish (?) is seen. Soil of a tawny color,
thereafter whitish, and granules and sand appear in that
order and then there is water.
308. If to the east of badari tree there is an ant hill, then
the existence of water should be advised at the depth of
three man-heights to the west. After digging half a man-
height a white shrew is seen.
309. If the tree of badari has by its side a palasa tree then
to its west, water is found at the depth of three and a
quarter man-height and after digging a distance of one
man-height an earthworm is seen.
310. Where there is an ant hill in the vicinity of kastha
and udumbara trees water current flows to the western
direction at the depth of three and a quarter man-height.
311. There the soil is whitish yellow, rocks are milk
white and after digging half the man-height a mouse
white like lotus is seen.
312. If an ant hill is sighted to the south in the vicinity
of bibhitaka tree then to the east thereof water current
flows at one and a half man-height.
313. And if the ant hill is to its west at a distance of one
hand, water current flows at the depth of four and a
half man-height.
314. After digging there at the depth of a man-height a
whitish scorpion may be seen and then a rock of saffron
color. On the western direction, however, the water
current will vanish at the end of two years.
315. If to the northeast direction of a kovidara tree there
is an ant hill along with kusa and asita then between the
two trees there is a small, steady flow of water at five
and a half man-height depth.
316. If a snake of pink color resembling the
interior of a lotus on digging one man-height is seen,
red soil and rocks of ruby color are said to be the
indications.
317. If a frog is sighted amidst several trees then below
it at the depth of four and half man-height at the distance
of one hand there will be water.
318. A land which is full of munj grass or of kasa and
kusa grass and where the soil is grainy and of a bluish
color, there the water is in ample quantity and of sweet
taste. Also if the soil is black or red, water is sweet and
abundant.
319. A reddish grainy soil makes the water astringent
in taste, the land of tawny color makes it caustic, the
whitish land is stated to make the water saltish while
the blue land makes it sweet.
61

Plant indicators for crop and animal
production
320. Where there is nyagrodha tree the land is fit for
producing barley crop, where there is growth of tinduka
trees the land is good for sastika (a rice variety that
matures in 60 days) and where there is an asvattha tree
the land indicates production of all types of crops.
321. The growth of the jambu trees indicates that the
land is favorable for growth of black gram and sesame,
that of sirisa trees indicates favorability for green gram,
that of madhuka indicates favorability for wheat, and the
growth of saptaparna, favorability for barley.
322. The growth of hastikarna trees indicates the
existence of elephants while that of asvakarna tree
(name refers to leaf shape) indicates the existence of
horses. Growth of patala trees indicates abundance of
cows. The plantains indicate the profuseness of sheep
and goats.
323. Mango trees indicate happiness, bhallataka fear,
while the palm trees indicate health. Khadira and sami
indicate famine, while arjuna gives satisfactory rain.
324. The blossoms of picumanda and naga ward off
famine, kapittha suggests cry of hunger. The nicula tree
indicates fear of dry spell or epidemics.
325. Thus Surapala, the expert of medicine whose
glorious success had spread all over the world,
composed this work of Ayurveda of trees out of interest
and after mastering various skills of the profession
under the patronage of King Shri Bhimapala who was
the leader of the valiant.
Thus ends the Vrikshayurveda.
62

Notes
Figures indicate verse numbers.
5. Oblations in the form of water, sesame, cooked rice,
and other gifts are offered at the time of funeral rites or
death anniversaries of parents, ancestors, near relatives,
etc. by their closely related survivor (usually a son)
according to Hindu religion. The word "kostharuha"
literally meaning "growing in the abdomen" is not
commonly used in the sense of a "child" as is done here.
It seems to be used for two reasons: (i) in order to match
with the word "bhumiruha" and thus bring out the
intended contrast between trees and sons more
effectively; and (ii) in order to emphasize the uselessness
of sons failing in their religious duty of "feeding" their
deceased parents by offering regular oblations although
they are born from the latter's very abdomen.
7. In fact four ages are stated, viz., Satya, Treta, Dvapara,
and Kali. The author might have referred to "three" ages
excluding Kali, the last age, as the same is unfit for gods,
etc. to reside on earth due to its impurities and lack of
regard for dharma.
8. Dharma, artha, kama, moksha are the four aims of
human life—Purusarthas—as prescribed by tradition:
• dharma—It is the customary observances of rules and
regulations according to the respective caste, sect, stage
of life, etc., e.g., learning and teaching by a Brahmin,
etc.
• artha (attainment of riches or worldly prosperity)—
This is prescribed for an individual in the second stage
of his life, viz., the stage of a householder (the other
three stages are celebate, hermit, and recluse).
• kama (pursuit of sensual enjoyments)—This is also
prescribed only for a householder.
• moksha (final emancipation; deliverance of the soul
from the cycle of birth and death)—This corresponds to
the fourth stage of an individual's life, viz., that of a
recluse.
Sometimes only the first three (Purusarthatrayi) are
mentioned as they are related to this world (verse 98).
15. Rajasuya is the name of a particular sacrifice
performed by a king at the time of his coronation to
declare and establish his supremacy over other tributary
kings. It is believed to bestow upon the king, the highest
reward.
20. "Samropya no dukkhi" is found in Majumdar (1935)
and appears to be the correct reading. The context is
about glorification of the trees. Hence, the fruit promised
cannot be "suffering for seven lives".
29. This verse denounces planting badari, kadali, dadimi,
and bijapuraka close to the residence only and does not
contradict glorification of planting them elsewhere.
31. "Ksirin" is a general term describing any tree
yielding "milk" (i.e., milk-like exudation).
42. "Sopha" as a name of a tree could not be traced.
"Saka" meaning teak wood is the nearest likely word.
44. "Wealth, God, and kings have unlimited resources
and power to make possible what is ordinarily
impossible." Author's inclusion of "wealth" along with
God and king shows his awareness of money-power.
63

47. "Bahustambha vitapino" (Borkar's text). "Bahustamba
    vitapino" (Majumdar's text). The latter makes better
    sense when compared with "Aprakande stambagulmau"
    (Amarakosa II.9). "Gulma" or "stamba" denote plants
    which do not have one prominent stem. "Na vidyate
    prakando yasya" and is often used in the sense of "bushes
    or plants growing in a cluster" as defined in Amarakosa.
48. "Brhati"—Two varieties (big and small) are listed
    in Bhavaprakasanighantu: Solanum indicum Linn. and
    S. xanthocarpum Schrad & Wendl.
49. "Durakoorchitagram" is not clear.
50. The second line is defective. Both Majumdar and
    Borkar texts read as "Datvavasu vasumateem va gunavate"
    which makes sense.
51. "Beejadham" means the place that holds the seed,
    i.e., where the seed is kept. "Nrnaamstreenaam" is
    defective and must be read as "Trnaasteernnam" (covered
    with grass). "Nistrnam" means "removing the grass".
52. "Sthiram Lagnam" indicates certain zodiacal signs,
    viz., Taurus, Leo, Scorpio, and Aquarius. When the Sun
    is in association with them the condition is
    astronomically called "Sthira Lagna" because any work
    done under these signs is supposed to be lasting.
53. After growing sesame or black gram in a particular
    land it is believed to be useless for growing any other
    crop at least for a year or two. While purchasing new
    farm lands, the farmer would investigate about the crops
    produced on the land during the previous two years.
    This practice is followed even today.
54. The reference to "gotikas" is noteworthy. Kikasa is
    the breast bone and the cartilages of the rib connected
    with it. In several verses (nos. 124, 151, 196, 216, 229,

251. of Vrikshayurveda there is a reference to gomansa
     (the flesh of the cow) and in yet others (verses 220, 252,
252. there is a reference to cow bones. The use of these
     parts of a cow in agriculture indicates an implied
     sanction to the killing of a cow which is sacrilegious
     according to Hindu religion. No doubt, there are
     references to killing of a cow or eating beef in the Vedic
     literature. Cow's milk was used in the sacrificial rituals.
     Considering this usefulness, the cow was regarded as
     sacred and gradually ill-treating or killing a cow came
     to be discouraged. Somewhere in the Puranic period, a
     total ban on the killing of a cow and on beef eating was
     effectively implemented and the Smritis (the ancient
     Hindu code of law) accorded statutory sanction to the
     same. It is evident from the above-stated references in
     Vrikshayurveda, such a ban did not stop the use of flesh
     and bones of a cow in agriculture.
     In fact, ancient texts like Atharvaveda, Brhatsamhita,
     Krsisangraha of Parasara and the Sukraniti contain clear
     instructions on manuring including prescriptions of free
     use of beef, etc.

65. "Tridvihastaistadvat" is metrically defective.
    Majumdar (1935) reads as "Dvichatustribhirantaritam".
    The required correction here could be
    "Trichaturdvihastaistadvat" to suit the meter.
66. Kunapa—This was a fertilizer consisting of flesh,
    meat, and marrow of several animals. After cooking
    these, various other substances like oil cake, honey, black
    gram, ghee, etc. were added. The whole compound was
    preserved and by mixing with water, liquid fertilizers
    were prepared. The long and complicated process of
    preparing and preserving kunapa is explained in detail
    in verses 101–106.
    64

74–75. The import is not clear. When checked with
similar verses in Majumdar and Borkar texts it appears
to be a method of planting of plantains.
84. The meaning of "talapika" is not clear.
85–86. Before transplantation, the saplings of big trees
are psychologically prepared through this chanting so
that it can bear the shock of uprooting and replanting.
Though not very suitable in a science text, the verses
speak a volume for the tender care with which the trees
used to be handled by the planter.
89. "Shukra" normally denotes Friday. Here it denoted
the month of Jyestha.
91. "Bhillota" or "bhillata" (verse 195) must be the same
as "bhallataka" (Semecarpus anacardium Linn. f.) (verse
323). It is a medicine for several diseases as compared
with Bhavaprakasanighantu which reads as "Hanti
gulmajvarashvitravahnimandyakrmivranan".
93. "Paryamprushaha" cannot be satisfactorily rendered.
Majumdar (1935) reads as "patrairuparyasprsthaha"
(leaves not touching each other at the top) which
appears to be more appropriate.
94. "Mandapa", etc. describe the designs of planting.
Nandyavarta, sarvatobhadra, swastika, caturasra, etc. are
also technical terms in the science of vastu describing
different designs (Brhatsamhita Chapter 53, verses
31–36).
96. The third and the fourth lines are not clear.
97. The verbal root tri (1.P.) means to cross over; to go
beyond (e.g., a river). Taraya—its causal form means
"making someone cross over", i.e., "save". The trees
save mankind from poverty and hence are called
"taravah". The derivation is explained at the
commencement of the section on "protecting trees" in
order to impress upon the human beings the need to
protect them by reminding them of their obligation.
106. Verses 101 to 106 describe the procedure of
preparing kunapa, the fertilizer. It requires procuring
flesh, etc. of several animals. Since the whole description
may sound unusual, in the final verse Surapala specifies
that what he has stated has the sanction of earlier
thinkers.
134. Third line is metrically defective. It may read as
"Peeyushahrdyasurabheeni bahooni bilva peenani..."
138. "Kashapala" makes no sense. "Jhashapala" might
have been the reading.
143. "Kusumaih bibharti" for "kusumani bibharti" (use of
instrumental case for object) is exceptional.
144. "Sasidhu" in the first line is difficult to construe.
145. "Pushpati" here and elsewhere too, should have
been "pushpyati".
148. "Kutwaragrena" is not intelligible. The same word
appears again in verse 176. Kutharagrena could be the
word at both the places. The meaning would then be
"with the tip of an axe". The tree is to be scratched either
with the nail by a charming lady or by the tip of an axe.
The implied comparison, however, is far from being
complimentary to a charming lady.
151. This verse can be compared with Shakuntala, Act
I, where a jasmine creeper is described as "the bride" of
the mango tree.
153. "Lola keela kalapa kavalyh kalita cha malli"—The
content is effortlessly embellished with alliteration.
65

158. "Bhasmaavajnagnisambhavam" does not make any
     sense. Instead, it would be appropriate if it is replaced
     by "Bhasmaavajragnisambhavam" implying "the fire
     caused by lighting".
     160–162. The mantra for protecting the trees is in the
     form of an order by Hanuman to rats, shrews,
     grasshoppers, etc. which destroy the fields. The mighty
     Hanuman is stated to be threatening them away by
     thumping his powerful tail, hard like diamond. Other
     epithets, viz., lanar, dehar, and pachar are not intelligible.
     The grammatical formations too are not clear. When
     compared with the Majumdar and Borkar texts the
     wording is not identical. Majumdar and Borkar also read
     a full anustubh verse describing Hanuman as a lion
     among monkeys. The thunder is stated to be the
     exploding sounds produced by the wind which is
     inherent in Hanuman, who is a Vayuputra. Probably the
     words in Surapala's texts, viz., lunar, dehar, pachar, etc

280. "Dadima" in the second line is metrically faulty.
     The second letter has to be deergha. "Dadimba" suits the
     meter.
281. "Utpala" is the blue lotus; and "padma" is the lotus
     that closes towards the evening. The verse describes the
     recipe to transform the seed of the former so as to
     produce the latter.
282. "Kumuda" is a lotus that blooms at the rise of the
     moon. "Kumudam kumadam" is a figurative expression.
     The second word means a man with bad conceit.
     305, 307. The reference to "fish" underneath the ground
     is curious.
283. Read as "nirgundi" instead of "gundi".
     About the Translator
     Dr Nalini Sadhale obtained MA in Sanskrit with distinction from the University of Poona, Pune, India
     and PhD in Sanskrit from Osmania University, Hyderabad, India. She has had a distinguished professional
     career and she retired in 1994 as Professor and Head of the Department of Sanskrit, Osmania University,
     Hyderabad. She distinguished herself by serving on several prestigious organizations, committees, and
     boards. She worked as Sastra Chudamani Scholar of the Rashtriya Sanskrit Samsthan, New Delhi, India.
     She has several publications which include Katha in Sanskrit Poetics, Sanskrit Verse Translation of Hindi
     Tulasiramayana, translations of Urvashi and Vasantsena from Sanskrit to Marathi, and Sitajosyam, a
     Marathi translation of Telugu play by Narla V Rao. She is currently working as Chief Editor of Panchadhara,
     a Marathi quarterly journal.
     Present address: 3-6-468, Hardikar Bagh, Himayatnagar, Hyderabad 500 029, Andhra Pradesh, India.
     67

Bibliography

Sanskrit texts

Anonymous. 1916. Susrutasamhita. Nirnaya Sagar
Press, Bombay, India.
Baldevprasad Misra (ed.). Brhatsamhita of
Varahamihira.
Borkar, D B (Tr.). Sartha Upavanavinoda. Borkar Mala,
Pune, India.
Chunekar, K and Pandey, G (eds.). 1986.
Bhavaprakasanighantu of Bavamisra. 7th edition.
Varanasi, India.
Majumdar (Tr. and ed.). 1935. Upavanavinoda. Indian
Research Institute, Calcutta, India.
Sharma, Pt. R D et al. 1981. Carakasamhita. Chowkamba
Bharati Academy, Varanasi, India.

Other works

Dasgupta and De. 1947. A History of Sanskrit Literature.
Vol I. University of Calcutta, Calcutta, India.
Gray, L H. 1962. Vasavadatta. 2nd edition. Motilal
Banarasidas, New Delhi, India.
Joshi, Pt. M. 1962. Bharatiya Sanskriti Bharatiya Kosha.
Sanskriti Kosha Mandal, Pune, India.
Keith, A B. 1929. A History of Sanskrit Literature. Oxford
University Press, London, UK. (Reprinted in 1956.)

Dictionaries

Anonymous. 1929. Amarakosa. Vth edition. Nirnaya
Sagar Press, Bombay, India.
Apte, V S. 1977. Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Prasad
Prakashan, Pune, India.
Williams, M. Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Indian
edition). Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, India.
68

Commentaries
69

Biodiversity Perspective

K L Mehra¹
Vrikshayurveda, written by Surapala in Sanskrit, is not
readily available in Indian libraries. It is, therefore,
appreciable that Dr Y L Nene, Chairman, Asian Agri-
History Foundation, not only procured a copy of the
text from the Bodleian Library, Oxford, UK, but also
arranged to get the text translated into English. Dr Nalini
Sadhale has done a commendable job of translating the
Sanskrit text. A copy of the translation was provided to
this commentator for comments on the plant
biodiversity and ethno-botanical aspects of the text. The
commentator assisted Dr Sadhale by providing
botanical names of the plant species mentioned in
Vrikshayurveda.
Vrikshayurveda, which means "The Science of Plant
Life", mainly deals with various species of trees and
their healthy growth and productivity. The text
mentions about 170 species of plants, including herbs,
shrubs, and trees. There are 325 systematically arranged
verses, beginning with a salutation to Lord Ganesha,
followed by glorification of trees, and composition on
tree-planting and production. Various chapters deal
with the raising of orchards, agri-horticulture, and tree-
planting near houses. Special references are made on
procuring, preserving, and treatment of seeds and
planting materials; preparation of pits for planting;
selection of land (soil); methods of irrigation and ways
to locate groundwater; nourishment and fertilizers;
diseases of plants and plant protection; laying out of
gardens and orchards; creation of agricultural /
horticultural wonders; use of plant species as indicators
of crop and animal production; and description of
sacred plants. This commentary deals with
biodiversity conservation and utilization aspects of the
text.

Biodiversity conservation

It seems that the text was written to help conserve plant
biodiversity of selected tree species. Surapala admitted
frankly that he compiled, out of interest, the works of
sages and that he had not stated anything of his own
(verses 3, 325). He elaborated on the importance and
glory of trees and took advantage of common peoples'
beliefs, religious attitudes, superstitions, and folk
knowledge to persuade people to plant trees (verses
4–34). He also elaborated on the benefits that a person
was likely to derive by planting trees, both in this life
and after life (in heaven) or after re-birth. The cultural
history of India is associated with religious beliefs and
any emphasis on or arguments dealing with plant-man-
God relationship appeals to people even today. This
attitude still prevails in India and many sacred groves
and places of worship have continued to preserve in-
situ biodiversity of specific species of plants. Surapala
took special pains to classify plants and planting
materials (verses 45–51) and provided methods to
procure planting materials and extraction of seeds (verse
52). He provided instructions on the treatment of seeds

1. Director (Retd.), National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New
   Delhi 110 067, India. Present address: 38 Munirka Enclave,
   New Delhi 110 067, India.
   71

and planting materials to promote germination, seedling
growth, and seedling care (verses 53–62).
Vrikshayurveda deals with cultural practices, e.g.,
sowing of seeds and planting materials; transplanting
of seedlings; spacing between plants and planting
design; preparation of underground pits for seedlings;
seed and fertilizer treatments; watering; planting of
bulbs; sowing or planting time; layout of garden or
landscaping; and other cultural practices (for details see
verses 63–99). Several verses of Vrikshayurveda deal
with plant nutrition; organic fertilizers and their
methods of preparation and application; weeding; and
herbal fertilizer recipes, with or without animal
products, but using one or more species of plants in
specific formulations for target species of trees (for
details see verses 101–115). Several verses (127–154)
provide information on irrigation methods, using water
mixed with herbal products obtained from different
plant species and animal products. Several verses
(116–156) deal with methods to increase fruit production
in different plant species, using herbal formulations,
some of which are species specific.
Vrikshayurveda deals with symptoms of plant diseases
and insect attack, and suggests several methods, using
herbal preparations to maintain excellent health of
different plant species (for details see verses 165–222).
Vrikshayurveda suggests ways to create horticultural
wonders with specific species of plant and animal
products, singly and in formulation (for details see
verses 223–300). Most of these recommendations need
to be tested to verify the claims, while others such as
plantain trees producing pomegranate (verse 246) are
simply not feasible. Surapala compiled the available
information and systematically organized the
recommendations, hoping that the readers would follow
them and use them (verse 3). It seems that Surapala
provided extensive recommendations on cultural
practices from planting to fruit production and plant
protection so that people will conserve the plant
biodiversity and enjoy its benefit (verse 3). He also made
specific recommendations relating to species of plants
that grow in specific environments: marshy, arid, and
ordinary lands (for details see verses 41–43). This reveals
his deep understanding of the agroclimatic conditions
and of adaptation of specific plant species to specific
environments or lands.

Plant indicators

Surapala carefully recorded several plant species and
the ecological conditions under which they grow. Thus,
he noted that occurrence of certain plant species could
be used as indicators for crop production, animal
production, water availability, and other attributes.

Crop production

Surapala referred to seven species of trees considered
as indicators of specific crop production areas due to
their natural occurrence on land. These tree species are:
Ficus benghalensis for barley, Diospyros tomentosa for a
rice variety that matures in 60 days, Ficus religiosa for
all types of crops, Syzygium cuminii for growing black
gram and sesame, Albizia lebbek for green gram, Madhuca
indica for growing wheat, and Alstonia scholaris for barley
production (verses 320–321).

Animal production

Surapala mentioned (verse 322) that the occurrence of
Butea monosperma indicated the presence of elephants,
72

asvakarna of horses, Stereospermum suaveolens of cows,
and plantains of abundance of goats.

Water availability

Surapala mentioned that the natural occurrence of
Syzygium cuminii near ant hills (verse 304), Scirpus
grossus (verse 306), Ziziphus mauritiana and Butea
monosperma (verse 309), kastha and Ficus glomerata (verse
310), bibhitaka (verse 312), and kovidara, Desmostachya
bipinnata, and Indigofera tinctoria (verse 315) would
indicate availability of water for irrigation. These claims
need to be verified.

Other situations

Surapala also compiled folklore on tree species (verse
323) which were considered as indicators of happiness
(mango), fear (bhallataka), health (palm tree), famine
(khadira and Prosopis cineraria), and rain (Terminalia
arjuna). The flowering of Azadirachta indica warded off
famine, Limonia acidissima suggested cry of hunger, and
Barringtonia acutangula indicated fear of dry spells or
epidemic conditions (verse 324).

Ethno-botany

Sacred plants

Several verses (10–19) of Vrikshayurveda elucidate
the relationship between certain species of plants
and the religious life of people. Specific plant
species were considered sacred and especially
associated with specific gods and goddesses, e.g., Aegle
marmelos and Ficus benghalensis (Siva), Azadirachta indica
(Sun), Mangifera indica (Garuda), Butea monosperma
(Brahma), Ficus glomerata (Moon), Madhuca indica
(Parvati; also other deities), and Ficus religiosa (Vishnu,
Hari).

Auspicious and inauspicious plants

Surapala (verses 24–26) provided a list of auspicious and
inauspicious trees for planting and their location near a
house, e.g., Ficus benghalensis (auspicious when planted
in the east but not in the west), Ficus glomerata (south,
not north), Ficus religiosa (west, not east) and Ficus lacor
(north, not south side of a house). He also mentioned
that laying of a garden to the south, southwest, or
northeast of a house leads to quarrels, distress, and
adversity (verse 33). Therefore, he recommended that
gardens should be laid out on the western, northern,
and eastern sides of a house (verse 34). He mentioned
that shadows of trees should not fall on the house (verse
28).
Surapala also listed (verses 29–32) several plant species
considered to be inauspicious. The planting or natural
occurrence of such plants leads to unhappiness (Ricinus
communis, Bauhinia variegata, Cordia wallichii, Terminalia
arjuna, and Pongamia pinnata), danger from enemies
(thorny plants, in general), loss of wealth (Manilkara
hexandra), and loss of progeny and prosperity (Ziziphus
mauritiana, Musa paradisiaca, Punica granatum, Citrus
limon, Indigofera tinctoria, and Curcuma longa). The taboos
associated with inauspicious trees and planting of
auspicious trees contained in Vrikshayurveda evoke
curiosity. The text does not specifically mention why
specific plant species are to be avoided. The text is also
silent on the issue of planting specific trees but not about
others on a particular side of the house. Perhaps, it may
refer to the climate and direction of the sun and rain in
relation to different rooms and their uses within the
household.
73

Conclusions
An analytical study of Vrikshayurveda written by
Surapala would enable the contemporary investigators
to delve into the past compilations of scientific works
on tree plantations—their growth and productivity—
and often linking modern knowledge with that of the
past. The scientific identification of Sanskrit plant
names, the therapeutic and various folk uses of plants,
and beliefs about different plant species constitute
important aspects of conservation and uses of plant
biodiversity. Such knowledge, especially folk beliefs and
other ethno-botanical uses of plants would help us
understand plant-man-environment relationship for
preserving biodiversity and knowledge bases for the use
of future generations of humankind.

74

Agronomic Aspects
S M Virmani¹
The English translation by Dr Nalini Sadhale of
Vrikshayurveda written by Surapala, around 1000 AD(?)
on the broader subject of 'arbori-horticulture'
comprehensively deals with the development and
maintenance of gardens. It contains knowledge on the
allied concern of sustaining the quality of soils and the
place of plant species to meet food, shelter, and aesthetic
needs of the different strata of society. If scientific
knowledge, as we understand it today, means gathering
accurate and systematic knowledge, then, Surapala's
tome on Indian arbori-horticulture is an organized
attempt on how plants grow and how their production
can be sustained by agronomic management.
Surapala's Vrikshayurveda may be rated as an early
literary work on the Indian philosophical systems of
knowledge, relating to agricultural sciences. After all,
the very term 'science' entered the English lexicon
during early 18th century. It came from France where it
meant (or was synonymously used with) knowledge.
Surapala's text meets all the broad parameters of the
term 'science' because it is an objective unbiased
systematic enquiry into systematic learning on how
plants grow, flower, and can be reproduced. The text is
largely driven by a sense of curiosity by the author on
the phenomena of production of trees. I would describe
the text as a mélange of science, philosophy, and social
sciences. We probably have come a full circle in our
scientific ethos. Today, we place a high value on
science as a tool for social advancement. When
we do not fully understand all the components
of a scientific system, we bridge the gap with what we
today call 'fuzzy' knowledge. When all steps of a
phenomena are fully documented within a scientific
regime—we call it science. Seen in this perspective
Vrikshayurveda, may be one amongst the early texts
that ushered in a scientific ethos in Indian agricultural
sciences.
In this commentary I will briefly discuss a few
important subjects that I have picked up from the
text. These are: the place of Vrikshayurveda in
contemporary agricultural sciences; an analysis of
suggested methods of successfully growing trees of
various kinds—ornamental, fruit-bearing, shade-giving,
etc., and their relevance to contemporary science and
the practice of arboriculture; the ecological niche for
trees during Surapala's time and today; and finally, what
use the knowledge base contained in the
Vrikshayurveda can be made as a springboard for
sustaining modern agriculture in the approaching
millennia to provide food and nutrition for the growing
populations.
Vrikshayurveda in contemporary
times
In today's world, global environmental issues relating
to sustainable development have emerged as topics of

1. Principal Scientist (Agroclimatology), International Crops
   Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru
   502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India.
   75

major concern. The Bruntland Commission report of
1976 and the Agenda 21 adopted by the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development have
challenged us to look beyond the obvious issues of
producing more food together with giving a fuller
recognition to issues of biodiversity. Vrikshayurveda is
replete with references that suggest that raising trees is
a means of attaining the four broad aims of life: dharma,
artha, kama, and moksha, which broadly mean that for
an holistic development of mankind and its welfare in
all its spheres including inter-generational equity, trees
have an important place. Fortunately, these are key
words for today's sustainable development of
agriculture.
In the text, considerable details are made available on
the kinds of trees—both shade-giving and
fruit-bearing—and flowering shrubs that can be
successfully grown and their benefits they provide.
Based on their growth habit both above- and below-
ground, and the kind of products they yield,
recommendations are made on aspects of their planting
and the distance of location of trees around the house.
As an example, the text suggests that the distance of
planting of the tree from the residence should be such
that its shadow does not fall on the house. Today, we
know that the diameter and height of the canopy of a
tree are related to the extent to which its roots can spread,
i.e., the diameter is related to their circumference of
spread and root depth is related to the height. During
the old days, houses were mainly built with wood or
mud and had weak foundations. The roots of the tree
could damage the structure; therefore the
recommendation. Many such examples abound in the
text.

Methods for sustainable horticultural
production
It is also evident from the study of Vrikshayurveda that
the people were those days well aware of the impact of
the quality of the soil on the growth of trees. Three types
of soil with respect to water content were recognized:
arid, marshy, and ordinary. In our agroecological studies
today, we use a similar classification: arid lands are moist
for a short period and limit plant growth due to a short
growing period; wetlands or marshy lands are over-
supplied with water but have poor soil-air-water
relations; and the ordinary lands (the uplands) have a
semi-arid soil moisture regime. These three soil types
are further sub-divided by their color and mineral
content, and the presence of soil biota and stones. In
fact, the soil classification systems in use today to assess
suitability of land for various purposes employ
somewhat similar criteria (Fig. 1).
The Vrikshayurveda recommends that lands that are
either acidic or salty or have an abundance of stones
and gravel are dry (with no accessibility to water); and
lands with ant hills are not suitable for horticultural
production. Incidently, even today we use the same
indicators to judge land suitability for laying out tree-
plantations.
The text abounds with references to the various methods
for raising plants, e.g., from seed, from stalks, from
bulbs, etc. The quality of some seeds having long periods
of dormancy was known. Methods for treating such
seeds with various forms of organic matter and by using
heat treatment to break the dormancy were
recommended. It is thus suggested that the learned
persons of Surapala's time had carefully observed

76

Soils
Ustalfs
Inceptisols
Vertic Soils
Vertisols
Psamments
Udupts / Udalfs
Orthids
Loamy Alfisols
Sandy Alfisols
Lucknow
Patna
Bhubaneshwar
India
Figure 1. The probable region of Surapala's study.

various phenomena related to the establishment,
growth, and development of trees, cataloged them in a
systematic manner, and were operationally using the
information in their day-to-day work.

In the book, there is an extended section on
methods of planting trees. Recommendations on
planting distance for different species of trees were
suggested from 6 m to 10 m. Observations in the
text, such as planting trees too far resulting in
losses due to high velocity winds and that trees produce
low yields when planted too close reveal that
careful studies must have been made over sufficiently
long periods of time (something that we call
long-term experiments, today). The subject
of the preparation of pits includes references to
the depth, diameter, addition of soil mixed with ash
(high in K), encrushed bones (high in Ca), farm-
yard manure, and ingredients having
properties for controlling soil pathogens. The
knowledge on mulching the soil surface (to save on
water requirements), grafting, transplanting, plant
protection seems to be well developed at the time
when Vrikshayurveda was written. Integrated

77

pest management methods—cultural, organo-chemical,
and smoke—were probably used extensively.
The nourishment of different trees as per their mineral
requirements in time and space was another aspect
which was well understood. There are references of the
application of liquid manures of various kinds of animal
origin for the preparation of farm-yard manure, and oil
cakes/plant residues. The subjects of weed control,
water management, ripening of fruits, preservation of
flowers for longer periods of time, and protection of
gardens from animal damage are well described. There
are notable references of spraying of some flowering
shrubs and creepers with wine—apparently to meet iron
deficiency. Similarly the knowledge to control plant
pests by organic formulations seemed to be well
developed.

Ecology and Vrikshayurveda

The place of horticulture in ecology both at the home
garden scale and at the field scale was well understood,
as is evident from references such as in verse 9: A person
is honored in Heaven for as many thousand years as
the days he resides in a house where tulasi (a kind of
flowering shrub) is grown; or in verse 10: And if one
properly grows bilva (a tree), which pleases Lord Siva,
in his family (courtyard), the goddess of riches resides
permanently (in his house) and this (riches) is passed
on to his sons and grandsons. Apparently the place of
trees in environmental maintenance and food chain was
well understood. The saints and philosophers of the time
extolled the people to 'grow more trees'—a slogan that
we seem to have rediscovered during the past few
decades.

Modern agriculture and Vrikshayurveda

It would be naive of me to suggest that all that was
written and compiled on the art and science of arbori-
horticultural aspects of agriculture, a thousand years
ago, can be applied or adapted in modern agriculture;
nor do I pretend that the knowledge base was adequate
to meet today's demands on land for food security. But
a study of the text of Vrikshayurveda gives the scientists
a reference in time—a benchmark—to pinpoint the
source of visionary perceptions shrouded in mystery of
Indian ethos. It is interesting to note that the Indian
knowledge base was deductive and carried with it
inductive logic. Issues like location specificity of
technologies with which modern science of agriculture
is still to grapple with fully, to say the least, was known
to the people in Surapala's times.
There are indeed many hypotheses and sayings
included in Vrikshayurveda that cannot be substantiated
today. Further genuine research for knowledge in the
discovery of these hypotheses consistent with known
facts on a holistic system of world order during different
eras or time-scales need to be constructed. Nonetheless,
Surapala's tome suggests that many theories of our
times were first logically thought of or hypothesized
by the ancient thinkers of India some 1000 years ago.
Finally let me add an epilogue. A study of
Vrikshayurveda leads one to believe that there is no
reason to suggest that any particular innate racial or
national deficiency exists in any region of the world to
develop systems of knowledge. The growth of science
and its advancement has to be nurtured at all times.
Scientific progress is a cumulative effect of advancement
78

of knowledge. We must, therefore look back at the past,
but with a critical reverence, so that we can understand
the reasoning of that age and plan for times ahead. I am
not suggesting for a moment that the people of
Surapala's time had already achieved a level of
agricultural technology equal to what we know in
modern times. But we must keep plodding ahead: with
our feet firmly on the ground which has been nurtured
by scholars like Surapala, and we must set our eyes on
achieving the goals of sustainable food security for our
people in the years to come.
It has been a learning experience for me to go through
the pages of Vrikshayurveda. I commend it to all who
are interested to learn from the past and to build a future
on a firm corner-stone of science.

79

Ailments

Y L Nene¹
I had been reading references to Surapala's
Vrikshayurveda for the past several years in bits and
pieces. This is the first time I could read an English
translation of the complete treatise; thanks to the
excellent effort by Dr Nalini Sadhale. This time the
Vrikshayurveda made a definite impact on my mind
and I felt incrementally more excited each time I re-read
the translation. Surapala, in this brief treatise, has
documented the wide knowledge-base related to arbori-
horticulture that existed centuries ago in South Asia. I
would like to elaborate below the reasons for my
excitement:
• Plant protection was already recognized as an
important activity. Details of the symptoms of various
disorders must have been observed over long periods
before arriving at definite descriptions and attributing
specific symptoms to various causes. I am not aware of
any other attempt in the world by which plant disorders
were classified into two groups; i.e. internal and external
before the time of Surpala. Further it is very significant
that physiology of trees was considered similar to those
of humans and therefore classifying the internal
disorders into vata, kafa, and pitta kinds (humors) as had
been done in case of humans. Several of the symptoms
described can be attributed today to fungi, bacteria,
viruses, or nematodes. In addition, damage due to other
non-infectious causes (external) such as excessive heat,
frost, mechanical injuries, drought or waterlogging,
birds, excessive growth of creepers (dodder ?), and
competition by weeds was recognized (see Table 1).
• Considerable thought must have been given over
centuries to the remedies before prescriptions to manage
the disorders could have been formulated. It is most
significant that various methods of treatments, adopted
today, were conceptualized and practiced centuries ago.
Seed treatments, prior to sowing, to ensure successful
and vigorous germination were given a lot of
importance. Good nutrition was recognized as a
preventive measure for ailments and at the same time
wrong treatments and excessive application of remedial
materials were recognized as problem-creating
situations. Dressing of wounds, mechanical or
physiological, were in vogue. Application of pastes over
affected tree surfaces was suggested. Drenching of soil
with various materials was a recommended practice.
Treating roots before transplanting was recommended.
Fumigation of trees and seeds by burning (to produce
smoke) specific materials was considered to be useful.
Spraying/dusting with appliances, as we do today, had
not evolved, but the crude versions of these are found
in sprinkling aqueous suspensions of materials and
application of brick-powder as dust.
• Several botanicals and other materials had been
identified and recommended for application on ailing
plants. We know today that many of the botanicals

1. Chairman, Asian Agri-History Foundation, 47 ICRISAT Colony-I,
   Brig. Sayeed Road, Secunderabad 500 009, Andhra Pradesh, India
   and also Deputy Director General, International Crops Research
   Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru 502 324,
   Andhra Pradesh, India.
   80

Table 1. Information contained in the Vrikshayurveda related to kinds of disorders observed in trees, causes and symptoms attributed, and remedies suggested.