प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

296 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App.
When and How the Thread came in :—
In the early period, Yajñopavīta was normally in
the form of a full upper garment like the Dupaṭṭā of
northern India or the uparaṇe of Mahārāshṭra. Āpas-
tamba Dharma Sūtra states distinctly that Yajñopavīta
should be normally in the form of the upper garment ;
wearing a thread instead is only the second alternative.¹
Jātukarṇya quoted in the Smṛitichandrikā distinctly
declares that Yajñopavīta in the form of the thread is
permissible only when the upper garment of the normal
size is not available.² The view of Ṛishyaśṛiṅga is the
same.³ Yajñopavīta was to be worn on sacred occasions
like the sacrifice or the prayer. In the course of time
the conception of the sacrifice changed ; the whole life
came to be viewed as a kind of sacrifice when everything
that one does should be dedicated to the Creator. If
then the Yajñopavīta was to be continuously used
during the time one is engaged in sacred duties, it must
be worn all the twenty-four hours. This could be
feasible only if the Yajñopavīta assumed a more
manageable form. It was probably on this account
that Yajñopavīta was allowed to dwindle in form into
the modern Sacred Thread. The alternatives placed
before society were many. Some were in favour of the
continuance of the old custom ; they held that it was
sufficient if the Yajñopavīta was worn as long as prac-

1. नित्यमुत्तरं वासः कार्यम् । अपि वा सूत्रमेवोपवीतार्थे ।
   II, 2, 4, 21-22.
2. वस्त्रोत्तरीयाभावे द्वयंगुलं त्र्यंगुलं चतुरंगुलं वा सूत्रैर्वस्त्राकृति
   परिमण्डलं तदुत्तरीयं कुर्यात् । p. 84.
3. अपि वा वाससा यज्ञोपवीतार्थं कुर्यात्तदभावे त्रिवृता सूत्रेण ।
   Ibid, quoted in SCS., p. 84.

II] YAJÑOPAVITA, THE SACRED THREAD 297
ticable ; it need not be worn continuously for 24 hours¹.
Others were in favour of substituting a Kuśa rope for
the unmanageable upper garment². But Kuśa rope was
not pleasant in touch and so some others advocated
that cotton thread should be preferred for the purpose³.
The reason in recommending the new substitutes was
convenience and nothing else. For a long time they
were not popular ; hence we find that in the Upanayana
ceremony, as it is described in most of the Gṛihya-sutras,
there is no mention of the boy being invested with the
Sacred Thread. In stead, we have the description of
the boy being offered the dupaṭṭā or uparaṇe i. e. the
upper garment at one stage of the ritual,
The Number of Sacred Threads increases, why :—
In the course of time, however, owing to its obvious
convenience, the innovation of the Sacred Thread
became popular and its original significance was
gradually forgotten. Brahmachārī was to wear only one
Sacred Thread, but Snātaka was to wear two, one for
the under garment and the other for the upper garment⁴.
It was clearly forgotten by this time that Yajñopavīta
was intended to be the upper garment. If Snātaka
was to wear two Yajñopavītas, the Gṛihastha must
wear three, for he was one stage higher. The Gṛihyā-
saṅgraha however thinks that this third Sacred Thread

1. कार्पासक्षौमगोबालशणवल्कत्तृणोद्भवम् ।
   सदा संभवतो धार्यमुपवीतं द्विजातिभिः ॥
   Nigamaparisishṭa in SCS., p. 84.
2. यज्ञोपवीतं कुरुते सूत्रं वस्त्रं वापि कुशरज्जुमेव वा ।
   Go. Gr. S., I. 2. 1.
3. अपि वा सूत्रमेवोपवीतार्थे । Āp. Dh. S., II. 2. 4. 22.
4. स्नातकानां द्वितीयं स्यादन्तर्वासस्तथोत्तरम् ।
   Vasishṭha in VMS., p. 421.

298 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App.
was in lieu of the upper garment¹. Devala also holds
the same view; an upper garment, he says, is not
always at hand, hence the recommendation to wear the
third Sacred Thread².
**Mysterious efficacy of Yajnopavita:-**In the
course of time Yajñopavīta came to be invested
with mysterious efficacy. The Āditya Purāṇa
declares that it has the power of destroying demons.
When such notions began to prevail in society, it is
no wonder that the view began to be advocated that
the greater the number of Sacred Threads, the better
would be our spiritual and material welfare. Kāśyapa
would recommend 2, 3, 5, or 10 Sacred Threads for
the house-holder;³ an anonymous text quoted by
Mitramiśra is in favour of as many Sacred Threads as
possible.⁴ All this vividly shows how the original
significance of the Yajñopavīta was completely forgotten
by this time. When Yajñopavīta assumed the form of
the thread, the custom gained ground of making each
of its thread a constituent product of nine smaller
threads. Oṅkāra, Agni, Bhaga, Soma, Piṭris, Prajāpati,
Vasu, Dharma, and Sarva-devas were taken to be
the presiding deities of the nine threads of the Sacred
Thread.
Can Yajnopavita be removed? :- Even when the
Yajñopavīta dwindled into the Sacred-Thread, it
could be occasionally removed in the course of the
day. The Taittirīya, Kaṭha, Kāṇva, and Vājasaneya
schools were in favour of permitting the removal

1. तृतीयमुत्तरीयार्थे वस्त्राभावे तदिष्यते । Ibid, p. 21.
2. तृतीयमुत्तरीयार्थे वस्त्रालाभे तदिष्यते । SCS., p. 801.
3. त्रीणि चत्वारि पञ्चाष्ट मुनिभिः स्युर्दशापि वा ॥ VMS., p. 421.
4. आयुष्कामैः सदा धार्यं बहुयज्ञोपवीतकम् ॥ 'अन्यत्रापि' in Ibid.

II] YAJÑOPAVĪTA, THE SACRED THREAD 299
of the Sacred Thread at the time of the daily
bath;¹ the Ṛigvedins and the Sāmavedins, however,
advocated the doctrine that the Sacred Thread should
never be separated from one’s person. The latter view
eventually prevailed and still obtains in Hindu society,

1. तैत्तिरीयाः कठाः काण्वाश्चरका वाजसेयिनः ।
   कण्ठादुत्तार्य सूत्रं तु कुर्युर्वै क्षाळनं द्विजाः ॥
   बह्वृचाः सामगाश्चैव ये चान्ये यजुःशाखिनः ।
   कण्ठादुत्तार्य सूत्रं तु पुनरर्हन्ति संक्रियाम् ॥ भृगु in VMS., 421.

APPENDIX III.
CONVOCATION ADDRESSES.
Convocation address to Arts Graduates.
A specimen of what may be described as a convo-
cation address to Arts Graduates is to be found in
the Taittirīya Upanishad, I, 11. As the passage is
very interesting from several points of view, it is
given below along with its translation.
वेदमन्‌ूच्याचार्योऽन्तेवासिनमनुशास्ति । “सत्यं वद । धर्मं चर ।
स्वाध्यायान्मा प्रमदः । आचार्याय प्रियं धनमाहृत्य प्रजातन्तुं मा
व्यवच्छेत्सीः । सत्यान्न प्रमदितव्यम् । धर्म्मान्न प्रमदितव्यम् । कुशलान्न
प्रमदितव्यम् । भूत्यै न प्रमदितव्यम् । स्वाध्यायप्रवचनाभ्यां न प्रम-
दितव्यम् । देवपितृकार्याभ्यां न प्रमदितव्यम् । मातृदेवो भव । पितृदेवो
भव । आचार्य्यदेवो भव । अतिथिदेवो भव । यान्यनवद्यानि कर्म्माणि
तानि सेवितव्यानि नो इतराणि । यान्यस्माकं सुचरितानि तानि त्वयो-
पास्यानि नो इतराणि । ये के चास्मच्छ्रे यांसो ब्राह्मणाः तेषां त्वयाऽऽसनेन
प्रश्वसितव्यम् । श्रद्धया देयम् । संविदा देयम् । श्रिया देयम् । ह्रिया
देयम् । भिया देयम् । संविदा देयम् । अथ यदि ते कर्मविचिकित्सा वा
वृत्तविचिकित्सा वा स्यात् ये तत्र ब्राह्मणाः संमर्शिनः युक्ता आयुक्ता
अलूक्षा धर्म्मकामाः स्युः यथा ते तत्र वर्तेरन् तथा तत्र वर्तेथाः । अथाभ्या-
ख्यातेषु ये तत्र ब्राह्मणाः संमर्शिनः युक्ता आयुक्ता अलूक्षा धर्म्मकामाः स्युः
यथा ते तेषु वर्तेरन् तथा तेषु वर्तेथाः । एष आदेशः । एष उपदेशः । एषा
वेदोपनिषत् । एतदनुशासनम् । एवमुपासितव्यम् । एवमु चैतदुपास्यम् ।
TRANSLATION.
After the teaching of the Veda is over, the
preceptor exhorts the student :

III] CONVOCATION ADDRESSES 301
“Speak the truth. Do your duty. Neglect not
the daily study (of the Veda). After having brought
to your teacher his proper reward, do not cut off the
line of progeny. Do not swerve from the truth. Do
not swerve from duty. Do not neglect what is useful.
Do not miss opportunities to become great. Do not
neglect the daily duties of learning and teaching (the
Veda). Do not neglect the (sacrificial) rituals due to
the Gods and Fathers.
Let your mother be to you like unto a god. Let
your father be to you like unto a god. Let your
teacher be to you like unto a god. Let your guest be
to you like unto a god.
Whatever actions are blameless, those should be
followed, not others. Whatever good works have been
performed by us, those should be emulated by you,
not others. And there are some Brahmanas better
than we. They should be comforted by you by giving
them a seat.
Whatever is given should be given with faith,
not without faith,—with joy, with modesty, with fear,
with kindness.
If there should be any doubt in your mind with
regard to any duty or with regard to conduct,—in
that case conduct yourself as Brahmanas, who possess
good judgment, conduct themselves therein, whether
they be appointed or not, as long as they are not too
severe, but devoted to duty. And with regard to
things that have been spoken against, conduct your-
self as Brahmanas, who possess good judgment, con-
duct themselves therein, whether they be appointed
or not, as long as they are not too severe, but devoted
to duty.

302 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App.
Thus conduct yourself. This is the rule. This is
the teaching. This is the true purport (Upanishad) of
the Veda. This is the command. Thus should you
observe. Thus should this be observed."
Convocation Address to Medical Graduates.
We get a very good specimen of the convocation
address to medical students in Charakasamhitā
Vimānasthāna, 8, 6-8. Important passages from it are
given below, along with an English rendering.
अनुज्ञातेन प्रविचरता [ त्वया ] पूर्वं गुर्वर्थोपान्वाहरणे यथाशक्ति
प्रयतितव्यम् । कर्मसिद्धिर्मर्थसिद्धिं यशोलाभं प्रेत्य च स्वर्गमिच्छता त्वया
गोब्राह्मणमादौ कृत्वा सर्वप्राणभृतां शर्माशासितव्यम् । अहरहरुत्तिष्ठता
चोपविशता च सर्वात्मना चातुराणामारोग्ये प्रयतितव्यम् । जीवहेतोरपि
चातुरेभ्यो नाभिद्रोग्धव्यम् । मनसापि च परस्त्रियो नाभिगमनीयास्तथा च
सर्वमेव परस्वम् । निभृतवेशपरिच्छदेन भवितव्यम् । अशौण्डेनापापेनापाप-
सहायेन च श्लक्ष्णशुक्लधर्म्यशर्म्यधन्यसत्यहितमितवचसा देशकालविचारिणा
स्मृतिमति ज्ञानोत्थापनकरणसंपत्सु नित्यं यत्नवता च न कदाचित्...............
अनपवादप्रतिकाराणां मुमूर्षूणां च तथैवासन्निहितेश्वराणां स्त्रीणामनध्यक्षाणां
वौषधमनुविधातव्यम् । न च कदाचित्स्त्रीदत्तमामिषमादातव्यमननुज्ञातं
भर्त्राथवाध्यक्षेण । आतुरकुलं .................. चानुप्राविश्य वाङ्मनोबुद्धी-
न्द्रियाणि न क्वचित्प्रणिधातव्यानि अन्यत्रातुरादातुरोपकारार्थादातुरगतेष्व-
न्येषु वा भावेषु । न चातुरकुलप्रवृत्तयो बहिर्निश्शारयितव्याः । ह्रसितं
चायुःप्रमाणमातुरस्य न वर्णयितव्यम् जानतापि तत्र यत्रोच्यमानमातुरस्या-
न्यस्य वाप्युपघाताय संपद्यते ।
विज्ञानवतापि च नात्यर्थमात्मनो ज्ञाने विकत्थितव्यम् । आप्तादपि
हि विकत्थमानादत्यर्थमुद्विजन्त्येके । न चैव ह्यस्ति सुतरामायुर्वेदस्य
पारम् । तस्मादप्रमत्तः शश्वदभियोगमिच्छन् गच्छेत् । ......। कृत्स्नो हि
लोको बुद्धिमतामाचार्यः । शत्रुश्चाबुद्धिमतामेव । अतश्चाभिसमीक्ष्य
बुद्धिमताऽमित्रस्यापि यशस्यं... पौष्टिकं... लौक्यमुपदिशतो वचः श्रोतव्य-
मनुविधातव्यं चेति ।

III] CONVOCATION ADDRESSES 303
ENGLISH RENDERING
"When, on getting permission, you begin to
practise, you ought to make an effort to offer an ade-
quate honorarium to your teacher. You should aim
at the welfare of Brahmanas, cows and all other beings
with a view to win practice, prosperity and fame here
and heaven hereafter. Every day you should conti-
nuously and whole-heartedly try to promote the health
of patients. Even if your own life is in danger, you
should not neglect your patients. You should not
entertain an evil thought about the wealth or wives of
others. Your dress should be modest, not foppish.
Avoid drinking, do not commit a sin, nor help one
who is committing it. Your speech should be smooth,
polished, truthful and to the point. Taking all facts
into consideration, you should make a deliberate
endeavour to increase the stock of your knowledge and
instruments. Do not give medicine to those whose
disease is definitely ascertained to be incurable, or to
those who are about to die, or to women, if their
husbands or guardians are not present. Do not accept
any fees from ladies without the assent of their
husbands or guardians. When you enter a patient's
room, all your attention should be centred on the
patient, his expression, movements and medicines, to
the exclusion of everything else. You must treat as
strictly confidential all information about the patient
and his family. Where there is a danger of the
patient or any of his relatives receiving a shock, you
should not divulge the impending death of the patient
even when you are aware of it.
Though well grounded in your line, you should
not praise your knowledge much; for some people get
disgusted even with their friends and relatives if they

304 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App.
are given to boasting. One can never get a mastery
of the entire medical science; unelated, one should
therefore pass one's time in making a constant effort
to learn something more. A wise man will indeed
gather something from every quarter; a fool only
thinks otherwise, and shows jealousy. Taking all
things into consideration, a wise physician should
listen to and derive benefit from the discoveries or
observations even of an enemy, if they are calculated
to promote one's fame and prosperity in this world.

APPENDIX IV
FOUR VEDAS, SIX ANGAS, TEN GRANTHAS,
FOURTEEN VIDYĀS, EIGHTEEN ŚILPAS AND
SIXTY-FOUR KALĀS.
In connection with the curriculum in ancient
India, the above expressions are frequently used; we
therefore propose to explain them briefly in this
appendix.
Four Vedas :—They are the Rigveda, the Yajur-
veda, the Sāmaveda and the Atharvaveda. These were
regarded as revealed, but there was a time when a deep
prejudice was entertained against the Atharvaveda,
which was therefore excluded from studies. The
remaining three Vedas were therefore called Trayī.
Six Angas :—These were the following; 1 Śikshā,
the science of pronunciation ; Kalpa, the science of
ritualism ; Vyākaraṇa, grammar; Nirukta, philology,
Chandas, prosody, and Jyotisha, astronomy.
Dasa Granthas :—These were the following:
1 One's own Veda 2. Its Brāhmaṇa 3 and Āraṇyaka
4 Nighaṇṭu and the six Aṅgas enumerated above. A
graduate, who had mastered all these, was known as
a Daśagranthī Brahmana.
Fourteen Vidyas : During the Pauranic period,
a person was regarded as a distinguished scholar if he
had mastered fourteen Vidyās. These were usually
taken to be 1-4 Vedas, 5-10 Shaḍaṅgas, 11 Dharma-
śāstra (sacred and secular law) 12 Purāṇas, 13
Mīmānsā (science of exegis) and 14 Tarka (logic)
20

306 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App.
Eighteen Silpas : There is no authoritative enu-
meration of eighteen śilpas. In one place the Milinda-
pañha includes the four Vedas, the Purāṇas, philosophy,
history, etc. among them (Vol. I, p. 6), but there is no
doubt that this is wrong. The basic conception of śilpas
is a profession requiring special skill¹ and the Vedic
age denoted by this term arts like vocal music, instru-
mentalmusic and dancing ² Taxila university claimed
to specialise in eighteen śilpas, and archery, military art,
medicine, magic, snake charming and the art of finding
treasures figure among the subjects taught there³.
These five therefore must have been included in the
śilpas. Conveyancing and law, mathematics, accoun-
tancy, agriculture, commerce, cattle breeding, and
issatha (?) are also mentioned as śilpas in the Buddhist
literature.⁴ When we remember the basic idea of śilpa,
we can include sculpture and engineering also among
the traditional eighteen śilpas. The following there-
fore most probably constituted the eighteen śilpas.
1 Vocal music 2 Instrumental music 3 Dancing
4 Painting 5 Mathematics 6 Accountancy 7 Engineer-
ing 8 Sculpture 9 Agriculture 10 Cattle-breeding
11 Commerce 12 Medicine 13 Conveyancing and Law
14 Administrative training 15 Archery and military
art 16 Magic 17 Snake charming and poison antidotes
18 The Art of finding hidden treasures.

1. एतद्धि दिव्यं शिल्पं न मानुषम् । Kss., XXV, 175
2. त्रिवृद्वै शिल्पं नृत्यं गीतं वादित्रम् । S. Br., XXIX, 5
3. Jātakas Nos. 80 and 537 ; Mahāvagga, VII. 1. 6; Jātaka
   Nos 185., 256 & 416.
4. M. N., Vol. I p. 85, A. N., Vol. IV pp. 281-2.

IV] SIXTY-FOUR KALĀS 307
Sixty-four Kalas : According to Vātsyāyana I.3.16,
the following are the traditional sixty-four Kalās, which
a cultured lady was expected to master :—
१ गीतम् २ वाद्यम् ३ नृत्यम् ४ आलेख्यम् ५ विशेषकच्छेद्यम्
६ तण्डुलकुसुमवलिविकाराः ७ पुष्पास्तरणम् ८ दशनवसनांगरागः ९ मणि-
भूमिकामे १० शयनरचनम् ११ उदकवाथम् १२ उदकाघातः १३ चित्राश्च
योगाः १४ माल्यग्रथनविकल्पाः १५ शेखरकापीडयोजनम् १६ नेपथ्यप्रयोगाः
१७ कर्णपत्रभंगाः १८ गन्धयुक्तिः १९ भूषणयोजनम् २० ऐन्द्रजालाः २१
कौचुमाराश्च योगाः २२ हस्तलाघवम् २३ विचित्रशाकयूषभक्ष्यविकारक्रिया
२४ पानकरसरागासवयोजनम् २५ सूचीवानकर्माणि २६ सूत्रक्रीडा २७ वीणा-
डमरुकवाद्यानि २८ प्रहेलिका २९ प्रतिमाला ३० दुर्वाचकयोगाः ३१ पुस्तक-
वाचनम् ३२।नाटकाख्यायिकादर्शनम् ३३ काव्यसमस्यापूरणम् ३४ पट्टिका-
वेत्रवानविकल्पः ३५ तक्षकर्माणि ३६ तक्षणम् ३७ वास्तुविद्या ३८ रूप्य-
रत्नपरीक्षा ३९ धातुवादः ४० मणिरागाकरज्ञानम् ४१ वृक्षायुर्वेद‌योगाः
४२ मेषकुक्कुटलावकयुद्धविधिः ४३ शुकसारिकाप्रलापनम् ४४ उत्साद्ने
संवाहने केशमर्दने च कौशलम् ४५ अक्षरमुष्टिकाकथनम् ४६ म्लेच्छित-
विकल्पाः ४७ देशभाषाविज्ञानम् ४८ पुष्पशटिका ४९ निमित्तज्ञानम् ५०
यन्त्रमातृका ५१ धारणामातृका ५२ सम्पाठ्यम् ५३ मानसीकाव्यक्रियाः
५४ अभिधानकोशः ५५ छन्दोज्ञानम् ५६ क्रियाकल्पः ५७ छलितकयोगाः
५८ वस्त्रगोपनानि ५९ द्यूतविशेषः ६० आकर्षंक्रीडा ६१ बालकीडनकानि
६२-४ वैनयिकीनां वैजयिकीनां व्यायामकीनां च विद्यानां।ज्ञानम्।
Owing to want of space it is not possible to
explain the meaning of each of the 64 kalās enume-
rated above. It would suffice to say that Nos. 23-4
refer to the art of cooking, Nos. 5, 8, 15 and 44 to
personal toilette of women requiring skill in the use
of ointments for the body, paints for the teeth, etc.
Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 27 enumerate fine arts like music,
dancing and painting. Arts necessary for home and
personal decorations are mentioned in Nos. 6, 7, 9, 10
14-19, 48 and 58 and they include garland making,
decoration of the floor, the preparation of the bed,

308 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App.
proper use and care of dress and ornaments etc.
Women, who were usually fond of ornaments, were
expected to be able to appreciate correctly the value
and quality of the different varieties of gold, etc, and
Nos. 38-40 refer to the capacity in this connection.
Arts useful for the housewife like sewing, patching,
elementary carpentry, repairs of household tools and
articles are mentioned in Nos: 25,33,35-6,37,41,44, and
49. Literary efficiency and skill of different variety
is presupposed by Nos. 28-31,33,45-47 and 51-57.
They require women to be skilled in reading, writing,
understanding different languages, composing poems,
understanding dramas, etc. Nos. 12 and 64 refer to
different physical exercises and Nos. 11,20,22,26,42,
43,57,59,60 mention recreations for utilising leisure
hours. The latter include magic, sleights of hand,
dyūta etc. No. 61 requires every woman to know how
to prepare toys for children.
It will be thus seen that the 64 arts, which a
woman was expected to master, endowed her with a
healthy physique, taught her all arts necessary for an
economic and an efficient housewife and made her a
cultured companion of her husband, who could
introduce her to any company of educated men and
women. It is obvious that only ladies in higher
sections of society could have got proficiency in 64
arts. What was their percentage we do not know.

APPENDIX V
Technical terms and dates of authors, works
and kings.
(A. = Author ; K. = King ; D. = Date ; Q. = Queen)
Agrahâra ; a village of learned Brahmana colonists.
Alberuni ; Arabic A., c. 1025 A. D.
Āpastamba D S. ; c. 400 B. C.
Arthasâstra of Kauṭilya, c. 300 B. C.
Asramas : four stages of life.
Bâṇa ; poet, c. 625 A. D.
Brâhmaṇa literature consists of explanations of and commentaries on the Vedas ; c. 1500 B.C. to 1000 B. C.
Bhâskarâchârya : A. ; c. 1150 A-D.
Bhavabhûti ; poet ; c. 725 A. D.
Bhoja ; Paramara king, c. 1025 A.D.
Brahmachâri ; student observing celibacy.
Brahmacharya, the state of a Brahmachâri.
Buddha died in c 487 B. C.
Châlukya Dynasty, Later ; 973 to A D.
Charaka ; An author on medicine, c 80 A. D.
Chandragupta Maurya, c. 300 B.C.
Chandragupta Gupta ; c. 400 A.D.
Divâkarasena ; sage, c. 610 A. D.
Diddâ ; Q. c. 1000 A. D.
Dharmasûtras ; c. 600 B. C. to 400 B. C.
Fa Hsien ; Chinese pilgrim in India in c. 400 A. D.
Gâthâsaptaśatî ; c. 4th century A. D.
Gauḍapâda ; philosopher, c. 700 A. D.
Gautama D S., c. 400 B. C.
Gâyatrî Mantra ; see p. 278.
Gṛihyasûtras ; c. 700 B. C. to 500 B. C.
Gupta age ; c. 300 to 500 A. D.
Gurukula, see p. 132.
Harsha ; K. ; 606-647 A. D.
Harshacharit, c. 625 A. D.
Hînayâna ; a branch of Buddhism, advocating its earlier philosophy. Its literature is mostly in Pali.
Homa ; sacrifice to gods.
Indo-Iranian age ; c. 2500 B. C.
Ikshvâku dynasty of Āndhra country, c. 200 A. D.
I-sing ; Chinese traveller in India in c. 675 A. D.
Janaka ; K. in Upanishads ; c. 1200 B. C.
Jâtaka period ; c. 500 B. C.
Jayachandra ; K, c. 1200 B. C.
Kadamba dynasty ; c. 300 A. D. to 600 A. D.
Kâlidâsa ; 4th century A. D. according to some and 1st century B. C. according to others.
Kanishka ; K. c. 100 A. D.
Kaṇva Dynasty ; c. 50 B. C.
Karman theory holds that we become what we deserve to be by our past actions.
Katha republic : c. 300 B. C.
Kauṭilya ; author of the Arthaśâstra ; c. 300 B. C.
Kumâragupta ; K. ; c. 425 A. D.
Lakshmaṇasena : K. of Bengal ; c. 1200 A. D.
Mahâyâna : a later school of Buddhism, which deified the

310 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA
Buddha and wrote its works
in Sanskrit.
Mahâbhârata; book; c. 300 B. C.
Mahâbhârata war; c. 1400 B. C.
Mâlatîmâdhava drâma; c. 725 A.D.
Mâlava republic; c. 300 B. C. to 200 A. D.
Maṇḍanamiśra; A. c. 800 A D.
Mantra; sacred verse or formula.
Manusmṛiti; c. 300 B. C.
Mauryan age; 325 to 190 B. C.
Milindapañha a book: c. 1st century B. C. or A. D.
Mîmânsâ school of philosophy deals with Vedic exegis and sacrifices.
Muñja; K. c. 980 A. D.
Nâgârjuna; Mahâyâna philosopher, c. 150 A. D.
Naishṭhika Brahmachâri observed celibacy to the end of his life.
Nirukta; a work on Vedic exegis; c. 700 B. C.
Nyâya philosophy mainly deals with the problems of logic.
Pallava dynasty; c. 300 to 750 A. D.
Pâṇini; famous grammarian; c. 6th century B. C.
Pâthaśâla; Sanskrit school.
Patwari; village accountant.
Punarjanma; rebirth
Purâṇas were given their present form in c. 350 A. D., though there are some later additions too.
Râmâyaṇa; c. 200 B C.
Râjaśekhara; poet; c. 900 A. D.
Śâlivâhana dynasty; also known as Sâtavâhana dynasty c. 200 B. C. to 200 A. D.
Samâvartana ceremony: at the end of the education course.
Saṁgha; Buddhist order of monks.
Sâṁkhya philosophy is atheistic and advocates that matter and souls are the two entities.
Sandhyâ; morning and evening Vedic prayer.
Śaṅkarâchârya, the great Advaitic philosopher; c. 800 A. D.
Saṁskâra; ritual.
Śibi republic in c. 300 B. C.
Śindhurâja; K. c. 1000 A. D.
Smṛitis; metrical books on sacred law; c. 300 B. C. to 800 A. D.
Snâna; see Samâvartana.
Śrâddha; oblations offered to a dead ancestor on the date of his death.
Sugandhâ; Q. of Kashmir, c. 900 A. D.
Śuṅga dynasty; c. 190 to 80 B.C.
Suśruta; a work on medicine.
Tol; a Sanskrit school on traditional lines.
Upâkarma; see App. I C.
Upanayana ceremony for initiating a student into Vedic studies.
Upanishadic period; c. 1200 to 800 B. C.
Uttararâmacharit drama; c. 725 A. D.
Utsarjana; see App. I. C.
Vaiśeshika philosophy mainly deals with atomism and logic.
Vasubandhu; Mahâyâna philosopher, c. 300 A. D.
Vedâṅgas; see App. IV.
Vedānta philosophy; mainly based on Upanishads and amplified by Śaṅkara, Râmânuja and others.
Vikramâditya VI, Châlukya emperor, c. 1100 A. D.
Vrata; a religious vow.
Yama Smṛiti; c. 7th century A.D.
Yoga philosophy concentrates on meditation and Prâṇâyâma.
Yuan Chwang: Chinese pilgrim in India in c. 640 A. D.

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 311
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY.
RELIGIOUS SOURCES.
Vedas, Brāhmaṇas, Upanishads, Dharmasūtras,
Gṛihyasūtras, Smṛitis, Buddhist Tripiṭakas and Jātakas.
Vīramitrodaya of Mitramiśra; Jīvananda's edition;
Smṛitichandrikā of Devaṇabhaṭṭa; Mysore University
edition.
LITERARY SOURCES.
Sanskrit dramas and poems referred to in the
text and notes.
TECHNICAL WORKS.
Charaka and Suśruta Saṁhitās.
Aryabhaṭīya of Aryabhaṭa.
Bṛihatsaṁhitā of Varāhamihira.
Dhanurvedasaṁhitā of Vasiṣhṭha, edited by
Hardayalu Swami, Meerut, 1899.
ARCHÆOLOGICAL SOURCES.
Ancient Indian inscriptions as published in various
archæological reports and journals like Epigraphia
Indica, Indian Antiquary, etc.
South Indian Epigraphy Reports.
FOREIGN SOURCES.
M'Crindle, Ancient India as described by Magas-
thenes and Arrian, Calcutta, 1926.
M'Crindle, The Invasion of India by Alexander
the Great. Westminister, 1896.
Legge, Record of Buddhist Kingdoms, by Fa-
Hsien, Oxford, 1886.
Watters, On Yuan Chwang's Travells in India,
Vols. I and II, London, 1904-5.

312 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA
Beal, Life of Hiuen Tsiang by Shaman Hwui Li,
London, 1911 (New Edition).
Takakusu, A Record of the Buddhist Religion by
Itsing. Oxford 1896.
Sachau, Alberuni's India, Vols. I and II, London
1888.
Nadvi, Arab aur Bharat ke Sambandha, Hindi
translation, Hindustani Academy, Allahabad.
Cordier, Yule's Travells of Marco Polo, London,
1926.
Bernier, Travells in the Mogul Empire, Oxford,
1914.
MODERN WORKS.
(1) GENERAL.
Macdonel and Keith, Vedic Index of Names and
Subjects, London, 1912.
Bloomfield, Rig-Veda Repitions. Harvard Oriental
Series, 1916.
V. A. Smith, Asoka, 3rd edition. Oxford, 1909.
Vidyabhushana, A History of Indian Logic,
Calcutta, 1921.
Altekar, The Rāshtrakūṭas and their Times.
Poona, 1934.
Altekar, Position of Women in Hindu Civilisation,
1938.
(2) BOOKS ON EDUCATION.
Keay, Ancient and Later Indian Education,
Oxford.
Das, The Educational System of the Ancient
Hindus, Calcutta, 1930,
Bokil, A History of Education in India, Vol, I,
Bombay, 1925.
Venkatesvaram, Indian Culture through the Ages,

MODERN WORKS 313
Vol. I. Education and the Propagation of Culture,
Mysore University, 1928.
Bose, Indian Teachers of the Buddhist Universities,
Madras, 1925.
S. C. Das, Indian Pandits in the Land of Snow.
Calcutta, 1893.
Report of the Education Commission. 1882, along
with the reports of the Provincial Committees.
Munroe, A Text-book of the History of Education.
Graves, A History of Education.
Oshea—Social Development and Education.
Nunn—Education, its Data and first Principles.
Adam's Reports—Report on Vernacular Education
in Bengal, 1835-8.
J. M. Sen, History of Elementary Education in
India, 1933. Book Company, Calcutta,
H. Staunton : The Great Schools of England,
London, 1877.
H. A. Stark :—Vernacular Education in Bengal
from 1813-1912, Calcutta 1916.
R. A. Quick :—Essays on Educational Reformers.
1929.
Henderson :—Text-book in the Principles of
Education.
Judd :—Introduction to the Scientific Study of
Education.
Thorndik :—Educational Psychology.
Davidson :—Education of the Greek People.
Driver :—Greek Education.

INDEX
Admission procedure 181.
Admission test 81-2, 118.
Agrahāra viilages as centres of education. 139-42.
'Aims of education ; 8-20 ; how far achieved, 242-49.
Aksharasvikaraṇa, a Sanskâra 265-68.
Alberuni, on Brahmagupta's dishonesty, 252 ; on Hindu scholarship, 256-7, 262 ; on vernacular education, 260.
Al-Idrisi, on Indian character, 245.
Alms, for students, compulsory for householders. 93
Annaprāśana, a Sanskâra, 266.
Apprentice system, 198-200 ; in Europe, 200, n. 2.
Arabs, borrow Hindu medicine system, 188 ; on Hindu character, 245.
Arts and crafts, training in, 198-202, attitude towards, 127-8, 258.
Āryabhaṭa on eclipses, 252-3.
Āśramas as education centres, 32-3
Association, 29-30.
Ayurvedic Upanayana 289-91.
Astronomy and astrology, 152, 252-3
B
Begging, see under Bhikshā-charaṇa.
Benares, as education centre, 110-114.
Bhikshā, for students, compulsory for householders, 93.
Bhikshācharaṇa, how far real in daily life, 64-66 ; why prescribed, 66 ; when a disgrace, 65.
Boarding arrangements, 76
Brahmanchāri, his paraphernalia, 275-6. See under Student for further information.
Brahmacharya, its duration, 89 ; rules of, 66-8.
Brahmagupta, his intellectual dishonesty, 252-3.
Brahmanas, and Veda teaching, 40 ; as teachers of non-vedic subjects, 41 ; as teachers, consequences, 249-50.
Buddhism and education, 225- 33.
Buddhist Universities, Organisation of, 73-4.
Buildings of schools and colleges, 75-6.
C
Capitals, as education centres, 103.
Caste system, its influence on education, 40-6; and Buddhism, 46-7. and Upanayana time, 272-3 ; and Sâvitrī Mantra, 278-9 ; and professions, 40-1.
Character, formation of, 10-11, 66-7 ; Indian, estimate of, 244-5.
Chaula and primary education, 267.
Chhurikābandha, 292-3.
Civic duties, and education, 248-9.
Classes, their strength, 82-3.
Co-education, 211.
College session, its duration, 85-6.
Colleges as organised institutions, non-existent in early times, 70-2 and at Taxila, 106 and Benares, 112 ; but existing at Nâlandâ, 114-6 ; Vikramasîlâ, 126-9 ; Ennāyirum, 132-3 ; Tirumukkudul, 133 ; Tiruvorriyur, 134 ; Salotgi, 130-2.
Commercial education, 195-7.
Corporal punishment, 27-28.
Courses, their duration, 89-92 ; their organisation, 88-89-96.
Cramming, 161.
Creative vein disappears, 254-5.

INDEX 315

[Left Column]
Culture, preservation of, as an aim
of education, 17-19; 247-8.
Curriculum, literary in early
Vedic period, 143-5; in late
Vedic period 145-6; during
1000 B. C to c. I A. D., 147-9;
during 1-1200 A. D., 149-57;
in Buddhist institutions, 155-7,
230-1.
D
Daṇḍa of the Brahmachārī, 280
Debates, 163.
Debts, three 18-92.
Degrees, 168-9.
Dhanurvedic Upanayana, 291.
Dharmaśāstra age, education in,
238-40.
Discipline, rules of, 66-9.
Doctors, status of, 184-189.
E
Eclipse, 252-3.
Education, conception of, 3-8;
Aims of, 8-20; Aims of, else-
where, 20-1; and how far achie-
ved 243-49: when to commence,
26, 272-3; to whom to be given
and to whom not, 53-4; how
far free, 78-81; in post-college
life, 26-7; through private
individuals for a long time, 71;
system, not other-worldly, 249;
characterised by depth, but
not equally by breadth, 261;
religious bias in, in India and
Europe, 249; effect of religion's
influence in India, 249-253; and
in Europe 254; system becomes
degenerated, 262-3; general esti-
mate, 263-4; centres, varieties
of, 103; primary, female and
useful see under Primary edu-
cation, Female education and
Useful education respectively.
Educational finance, 92-102:
Educational institutes, rise of 72
Ennayiram temple college, 132-3.
Examinations, 167-9.

[Right Column]
F
Family, and education, 33-6.
Fees, 78-81; in ancient Greece
78n. 2
Female education and family, 35;
two classes of girl students,
207; Coeducation, 211; Upa-
nayana and Vedic studies of
girls, 204-6, 212-5; attainments
of lady scholars, 207-8, and
Buddhism 209, 220, 231; extent
of, 212; in cultured families,
217; in ordinary families, 219;
in ruling families 220-2;
and economic independence,
222-3; in Muslim period, 223-4;
and Jainism, 244.
Fine arts, training in, 200-1; and
women, 217.
Foreign scholarship, attitude to-
wards, 257;
Foreign travel, 257
Forests, as centres of education,
32-3;
G
Gāyatrī Mantra, 278-9.
Girdle, its significance, 275.
Government, recruits scholars for
its posts, 98; patronises distin-
guished scholars and colleges,
97: gives land grants 97;
cash grants, 98, taxation exem-
ptions and other concessions to
scholars, 98-99; does not control
education, 99-100; in the west,
and education, 100-101.
Grammar study, 152-3.
Greek education at Taxila, 105-6.
Greeks on Hindu character, 244.
Gṛihaṇishkramaṇa, a Saṅskāra,
266.
Guilds, in India and useful educa-
tion, 196-7.
Guru, see under teacher.
Gurudakshiṇā, 78-80;
Gurukula system, 30-2.