सङ्गीतरत्नाकर: प्रथम भाग (शार्ङ्गदेव - स्वरगताध्याय सविस्तार व्याख्या व अनुवाद सहित)

130 Treatment of Svara
ग. स्वरः
(i) सप्त स्वराः
श्रुतिभ्यः स्युः स्वराः षड्जर्षभगान्धारमध्यमाः ।
पञ्चमो धैवतश्चाथ निषाद इति सप्त ते ॥२३॥
तेषां संज्ञाः सरिगमपधनीत्यपरा मताः ।
C. Svara and its different aspects
(i) Seven svara-s (tones) : 23-24b
From out of the śruti-s¹ arise the svara-s²; these are
seven, viz., ṣaḍja, ṛṣabha, gāndhāra, madhyama, pañcama, dhaivata,
This verse is quite important as it reflects the views of Śārṅgadeva
regarding the relationship of śruti and svara; and that is why the English
version has been rendered as close to the original text as possible, even
though it has necessitated an unusual construction.
‘Śruti-s give rise to the svara-s’, is a cryptic statement which affords
enough scope for different interpretations. But before discussing these,
it will be better to be clear about its obvious implications. As already
pointed out, the svara-s arise out of śruti-s in the groups of two, three
and four, but essentially in groups. As far as the śuddha svara-s, i. e., the
standard notes of the ṣaḍja-grāma (to be explained later) are concerned,
twentytwo śruti-s in the groups of four, three and two go to constitute
seven notes called sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, and ni.
Now, how do śruti-s give rise to svara-s and actually what relation-
ship obtains between them? ‘K’ discusses this question thoroughly
and presents the following possible interpretations :
(i) Since svara as well as śruti have the sense of hearing as the
means of perception, in the absence of any perceptual
distinction, there is no categorical difference between the
two; which, therefore, stand in the relationship of the
general and the particular (i. e , in other words, they are
essentially identical).

1. From out of śruti-s, in the groups of four, three and two as
   already mentioned.
2. In other words, śruti-s in different combinations bring different
   svara-s into being. The verbal form ‘syuḥ’ is suggestive of a
   natural occurrence,
   Section 3 : Nāda, Śruti and Svara 131
   and niṣāda. Their another accepted nomenclature³ is ‘sa-ri-
   ga-ma-pa-dha-ni’. (23-24b)
   ( ii) Like the reflection of the face in the mirror, the svara-s are
   projected by the śruti-s, and present the relationship of
   appearance and Reality.
   (iii) Just as a ball of mud is said to be the material cause of an
   earthen pot made out of it, so also śruti-s form the material
   out of which svara-s are shaped. Thus, in this view, śruti and
   svara stand in the relationship of a material cause and effect.
   (iv ) As milk gets transformed into curd, so also the śruti-s are
   transformed into svara-s.
   ( v ) Just as a lamp manifests by its light the objects already exis-
   ting in darkness, so also the svara-s are manifested by
   the śruti-s.
   These views may be critically examined as under:
   ( i ) The first view does not hold good; for svara and śruti are
   two different concepts related in the spirit of the supporter
   and the supported, and cannot as such be identical. More-
   over, śruti and svara cannot be related as the general and
   the particular merely on account of the non-distinction in
   the mode of their perception, for ‘non-distinction’ cannot
   logically be confused with universality.
   ( ii) The second view is still less plausible, for if the svara-s are
   taken to be mere appearance with reference to śruti-s, they
   have no reality of their own, which is not the case in prac-
   tice. The svara-s are no less real than the śruti-s.
   (iii) It is contended by this view that śruti and svara are related
   as cause and effect. Though, svara follows śruti in the
   sequence of time, yet śruti cannot be considered to be the
   material cause of svara in the same way as a clod of mud
   can be said to be the material cause of the pot etc, because
   after the pot has come into being, the mud is no longer
   available to us apart from the pot. But, this does not hold
   good in this case; for, it will be untrue to say that apart
   from the svara, the śruti-s constituting the svara are not avai-
   lable. Since they are so available, the śruti-s cannot be
   taken as the material cause of the svara-s.
3. This is constituted in principle by the first letters of the full
   names and these names accordingly are their diminutive
   forms or abbreviated symbols.

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132 Treatment of Svara
(iv) The fourth and the fifth views, being free of any such fault
and having been supported by Mataṅga etc., are acceptable.
In fact it is Mataṅga who was first to discuss this topic in such
detail and 'K' has only reproduced his views in his own words.
Mataṅga summarises the above five views in the following verse, though
he also discusses them in detail :
"With respect to śruti-s five views are generally held, viz., identity,
reflection, causation, transformation and manifestation" (Bṛhaddeśī 31).
Mataṅga points out the faults of the first three views, which are
reproduced by 'K' and supports the last two views in general. But then
finally he comes out in favour of the 'manifestation theory', as he says :
"By perception, inference and circumstantial evidence the śruti-s
may be accepted as factors manifesting the svara-s" (Bṛhaddeśī 53).
Thus, Mataṅga considers śruti-s to be the factors manifesting the
svara-s, and Śārṅgadeva thinks that śruti-s give rise to the svara-s. It is
obvious that both are saying the same thing in two different ways. The
śruti-s, with respect to the svara-s, may therefore be taken to be the
factors that in different combinations give rise to different svara-s, consti-
tute them for a while, and so manifest them or make them perceptible.
As pointed out by 'K', Mataṅga has elucidated the significance of
the names of the notes, which is represented briefly as under :
(i) Ṣaḍja—is so called because :
(a) it is the precursor (lit. the progenitor) of the six other
notes, or
(b) it is brought into being by six other notes for, as an
integrated part of the heptad (saptaka) it is manifested
by the rest of the parts together.
(c) alternatively, it is produced by six organs of the body,
viz., the nostrils, the throat, the palate, the breast, the
tongue and the teeth.
(ii) Ṛṣabha—is so called because it quickly appeals to (lit. arrives
at) the heart, or as among the herd of cows a bull appears
to be distinctly strong so also in the group of notes ṛṣabha is
strong and noticeable. It may be added that the first
derivation is based on the word ṛṣabha as grammatically
derived from the root 'ṛṣ' to go; while the second is based
on the literal meaning of the word, viz., bull which is taken
as a symbol of strength. Alternatively, that which sounds
(i e., bellows) like a bull is ṛṣabha.

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Section 3 : Nāda, Śruti and Svara
(iii) Gāndhāra—is so called because it holds musical speech.
This interpretation is based on the grammatical derivation
of the word gāndhāra, "gāṁ dhārayate-iti-gāndhāra". Alter-
natively, it is so called because it delights gandharva-s,
the semi divine beings associated with music.
(iv) Madhyama—is so called because it is in the centre of the
seven notes having three on either side. This derivation is
based on the literal meaning of the word madhyama, which
means belonging to the centre. 'K' also gives two other
alternatives which seem to be far-fetched.
(v) Pañcama—is that which measures the extent of other notes;
or it is so called because it is fifth from the fundamental
note. The first view presents a grammatical derivation
jointly from two roots, 'pac'—to extend and 'mi'—to measure.
How it measures the extent of other notes will be made
clear subsequently in the context of pramāṇa śruti (in the
appendix). According to another interpretation, Pañcama
is so called because it is produced from the fifth place.
(vi) Dhaivata—is so called because being brought about by the
śruti-s of the 'posterior tone' it is to be discerned by sensi-
tive minds. The expression 'posterior tone' representing
the original 'uttarasvara' is a technical one. The musical
scale is divided into two parts with madhyama in the centre
and a group of three notes on either side of it. The notes
of the first triad are called pūrvasvara-s, i. e., the 'anterior
tones' and those of the other following triad are called
uttara-svara-s 'posterior tones', and both the triads are
respectively called pūrvāṅga and uttarāṅga, i. e., the anterior
section and the posterior section of the heptad (saptaka).
(vii) Niṣāda—is so called because the notes of the scale come to
a close with it. The word is derived from the Sanskrit root
'ni+ṣad' to come to a rest. Obviously, niṣāda is the last
note of the heptad (saptaka).

: 134 Treatment of Svara
(ii) स्वरलक्षणम्
श्रुत्यनन्तरभावी यः स्निग्धोऽनुरणनात्मकः ॥२४॥
स्वतो रञ्जयति श्रोतृचित्तं स स्वर उच्यते ।
(ii) The definition of svara (tone):
Immediately consequent upon śruti¹, creamy² and
Now the svara is being defined. By the way, the essential difference
between śruti and svara is also implied in this definition. When a string
of the vīṇā is plucked, the very first sound produced is considered to be
śruti and the very next sound following it, which is the resounding of the
śruti is called svara. In other words, whereas śruti is essentially free from
resonance, resonance is the essential characteristic of svara.
The other two essential characteristic features of 'svara' are softness
and self-sustained delightfulness.
There is a slight difference of opinion with regards to the inter-
pretation of this definition of svara; 'K' thinks that since the author has
already established the notes on the vīṇā and defined their śruti-
intervals, here in this context the word śruti means the fourth śruti etc.,
which when manifested resounds subsequently into ṣaḍja etc. In other
words, by śruti is meant that particular śruti which is capable of resound-
ing into a note and which is technically called svarasthāna, i. e., the seat
of a note. However, it is notable that 'S' thinks that the sound produced
by the first string (of the 22-stringed vīṇā) which is devoid of resonance
is called śruti while the subsequent resounding sound is called svara.
It is interesting to compare this verse as translated by M. S.
Ramaswami Aiyar in his edition of the Svaramelakalānidhi as it is borrow-
ed verbatim by Rāmāmātya. He renders it as under:

1. The expression "śruti-anantara-bhāvī" is specifically important
   for it is designed to stress on the one hand the characteristic
   difference between the concepts of śruti and svara, and on the
   other hand, their specific relation as well. Svara, in other
   words is a developed śruti Since śruti here signifies the sound
   produced by striking a vibrating string in the first instant
   which is conspicuous by being free from resonance, svara
   signifies that very sound when it gathers vibrations of
   resonance and thereby becomes sonorous.
2. Snigdha is defined as that (sound) which is soft and is also
   capable of being heard at a distance. Actually the literal
   meaning of the word is 'viscous' and is applied as such to
   liquids only; but here it is used figuratively. In this sense, it
   is a quality of musical sound. The opposite of snigdha is rūkṣa,
   i. e., rough or dry.
   Section 3 : Nāda, Śruti and Svara
   resonating³, the sound⁴ that delights the listeners' minds by
   itself⁵ is called svara⁶. (24c-25b)
   "That is called svara, which is by itself pleasing to the ear and the
   mind; which permeates the śruti-s; and which is tender and
   harmonic."
   It will be noticed that he renders the expression "śrutyanantarabhāvī"
   as "which permeates the śruti-s". Apart from the value of this render-
   ing from a translator's point of view, what is remarkable is the implied
   relationship of svara and śruti in this expression. That svara permeates
   the śruti-s means that, svara-s are involved in śruti-s.
3. Anuraṇana (anu+raṇana lit. the 'post-sound' from raṇ to sound,
   to ring, to tinkle etc.) technically signifies the sound-vibra-
   tions of a string that are produced and that ordinarily follow
   the sound produced in it (by striking) in the very first instance,
   which is called raṇana and is devoid of resonance. The term
   resonance (from resound, to echo, to ring, to go on sounding)
   is generally associated with the resounding of sympathetic
   strings or bodies other than that in which the original sound
   is produced; but anuraṇana differs from this concept in so far
   as it denotes resounding of the sound produced in the same
   vibrating string or body. However, for want of a better word
   it has been rendered as resonance.
4. The pronoun yaḥ is used in the text for it.
5. This is the most important and distinguishing feature of svara,
   viz., that it should have the quality of delighting the mind of
   the listeners by itself, i. e., without the need for any other
   accompaniment or help. 'S' points out that this quality is
   related to the quality of softness attributed to svara.
6. It is notable that, whereas Mataṅga derives the word svara
   from the root rājṛ—to shine, to appear, prefixing sva to it,
   Śārṅgadeva derives it from the root rañj—to delight. Both of
   these derivations are semantic explanations and do not have
   the precision of a grammatical authority. Even so, the diffe-
   rence of approach is significant. Śārṅgadeva seems to have
   been under the influence of Abhinavagupta in his interpreta-
   tion, who stresses the element of resonance (anuraṇana) as the
   most distinguishing feature of the essential nature of svara
   (tone) in contrast with that of śruti, which he says is devoid of
   it. Accordingly, the beauty of a tone depends on the ratio of
   unresonating and resonating sound present in its production.
   Thus every tone has two elements, the unresonating and the
   resonating; if the former is greater in ratio the tone quality is
   the lowest, if both are equal it is medium and if the latter is
   greater it is the best (cf N. S., G O. S. Vol. IV, p. 13).
   This line of thinking emphasises the element of delightful-
   ness that essentially characterises the svara, and this is attribut-
   ed mainly to the element of resonance in it. It is not therefore
   surprising to find Śārṅgadeva defining svara as that which is
   delightful by itself.

136 Treatment of Svara
(iii) श्रुतीनां स्वरकारणत्वम्
ननु श्रुतिश्चातुर्थ्यादिस्त्वेवं स्वरकारणम् ॥२५॥
त्र्यादीनां तत्र पूर्वासाम् श्रुतीनां हेतुता कथम् ।
ब्रूमश्चतुर्थ्यादीत्याऽऽदिः श्रुतिः पूर्वाऽभिकाङ्क्षया ॥२६॥
निर्धार्यतेऽतः श्रुतयः पूर्वा अप्यत्र हेतवः ।
(iii) Discussion regarding śruti-s causing the svara: 25c-27b
Well indeed, if such śruti-s as the fourth etc.¹, are
admitted to be the cause of the svara-s, how can the other
śruti-s such as the third etc.², be considered as their cause ?
(25c-26b).
We shall presently explain it. Such a śruti, whether
fourth or third etc.³, is determined only with reference to the
preceding śruti-s⁴; therefore, they too constitute the cause of
the svara-s. (26c-27b)
Now it has been established in principle that from out of śruti-s
arise the svara-s, and therefore, śruti-s are conceived as the antecedent
cause of the svara-s. Whatever be the difference of opinion with respect
to the actual relationship between svara and śruti, there is no denying
the fact that all the śruti-s go to bring about the svara-s. At the same
time it is also asserted that since svara is that sound which immediately
follows the śruti in the order of its resonance, it is the fourth, the third
and the second śruti respectively of the three groups of four, three and
two, that goes to produce the svara. If that be so, then the question is,
"On what basis can the other śruti-s such as the third, the second and
the first respectively of the groups of four, three and two be considered
as constituting the cause of the svara-s ?"
The answer is as obvious as the question is clear. The fourth or
third or the second śruti can be so called only if it is preceded by three
śruti-s, two śruti-s and one śruti respectively, and not otherwise. Thus
all the śruti-s of a svara are responsible for its manifestation.

1. 'Fourth etc' of the text refers to column 4 of the above chart
   while by 'etc', Nos. 2 and 3 of the same column are included.
2. 'Third etc' of the text refers to column 5 of the above chart,
   while by etc.' Nos. 2 and 3 of the same column are included.
3. As explained in note 1 above.
4. All those enumerated in columns 5 and 6 of the above chart.
   The śruti-groups as related to the different svara-s are indicated in
   the following chart :
   śruti-groups and the svara-s (notes)
   | S. No. | śruti-group | svara-s | note-position in terms of śruti (in the svara) | note-position in terms of śruti (in the scale) | immediately antecedent śruti (in the svara) | immediately antecedent śruti (in the scale) | other antecedent śruti-s (of the svara) | other antecedent śruti-s (of the svara & the scale) |
   | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
   | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 6 |
   | 1 | 4-śruti interval | ṣaḍja | 4th | 4th | 3rd | 3rd | 2nd & 1st | 2nd & 1st |
   | | | madhyama | " | 13th | " | 12th | " | 11th & 10th |
   | | | pañcama | " | 17th | " | 16th | " | 15th & 14th |
   | 2 | 3-śruti interval | ṛṣabha | 3rd | 7th | 2nd | 6th | 1st | 5th |
   | | | dhaivata | " | 20th | " | 19th | " | 18th |
   | 3 | 2-śruti interval | gāndhāra | 2nd | 9th | 1st | 8th | — | — |
   | | | niṣāda | " | 22th | " | 21th | — | — |
   (Chart 5)
   (iv) पञ्चजातिषु सप्तस्वरेषु च सनाम श्रुति-विभाजनम्
   दीप्ताऽऽयता च करुणा मृदुर्मध्येति जातयः ॥२७॥
   श्रुतीनां पञ्च तासां च स्वरेष्वेवं व्यवस्थितिः ।
   दीप्ताऽऽयता मृदुर्मध्या षड्जे स्यादृषभे पुनः ॥२८॥
   संस्थिता करुणा मध्या मृदुर्गान्धारके पुनः ।
   दीप्ताऽऽयते मध्यमे ते मृदुमध्ये च संस्थिते ॥२९॥
   मृदुर्मध्याऽऽयताऽऽख्या च करुणा पञ्चमे स्थिता ।
   करुणा चायता मध्या धैवते सप्तमे पुनः ॥३०॥
   दीप्ता मध्येति तासां च जातीनां ब्रूमहे भिदाः ।
   तीव्रा रौद्री वज्रिकोक्तेत्युक्ता दीप्ता चतुर्विधा ॥३१॥
   कुमुद्वत्यायता याऽस्याः क्रोधा चाथ प्रसारिणी ।
   संदीपनी रोहिणी च भेदाः पञ्चेति कीर्तिताः ॥३२॥
   दयावती तथाऽऽलापिन्यथ प्रोक्ता मदन्तिका ।
   त्रयस्ते करुणाभेदा मृदोर्भेदचतुष्टयम् ॥३३॥

138 Treatment of Svara
मन्दा च रतिका प्रीतिः क्षितिर्मध्या तु षड्विधा ।
छन्दोवती रञ्जनी च मार्जनी रक्तिका तथा ॥३४॥
रम्या च क्षोभिणीत्यासामथ ब्रूमः स्वरस्थितिम् ।
तीव्राकुमुद्वतीमन्दाच्छन्दोवत्यस्तु षड्जगाः ॥३५॥
दयावती रञ्जनी च रक्तिका चर्षभे स्थिताः ।
रौद्री क्रोधा च गान्धारे वज्रिकाऽथ प्रसारिणी ॥३६॥
प्रीतिश्च मार्जनीत्येताः श्रुतयो मध्यमाश्रिताः ।
क्षिती रक्ता च संदीपन्यालापिन्यपि पञ्चमे ॥३७॥
मदन्ती रोहिणी रम्येत्येतास्तिस्रस्तु धैवते ।
उग्रा च क्षोभिणीति द्वे निषादे वसतः श्रुती ॥३८॥
(iv) The allocation of śruti-s as characterised by their classes
and names among the svara-s : 27c-38.
There are five classess¹ of śruti-s, viz., dīptā, āyatā,
karuṇā, mṛdu and madhyā; their standing among the svara-s is
stated to be as under (27c-28b)
Dīptā, āyatā, and madhyā are found in ṣaḍja; karuṇā,
and mṛdu find a place in ṛṣabha; dīptā and āyatā are located
in gāndhāra and also in madhyama along with mṛdu and madhyā;
mṛdu, madhyā, āyatā and karuṇā are placed in pañcama, and
karuṇā, āyatā and madhyā in dhaivata; while dīptā and madhyā
are in niṣāda. (28c-31a)
Now, we shall speak of the subdivisions of these classes :
Dīptā is said to be fourfold viz., tīvrā, raudrī, vajrikā and ugrā;
āyatā is known to have five varieties viz., kumudvatī krodhā,
prasāriṇī, sandīpanī and rohiṇī; karuṇā is said to be threefold,
viz., dayāvatī, ālapinī and madantikā; mṛdu is fourfold, viz.,
mandā, ratikā,² prīti and kṣiti; while madhyā is sixfold, viz.,
chandovatī, rañjanī, mārjanī, raktikā, ramyā and kṣobhiṇī. (31b-35a)
And now we shall point out their position among the
svara-s :
Tīvrā, kumudvatī, mandā and chandovatī pertain to ṣaḍja;
dayāvatī, rañjanī and raktikā are related to ṛṣabha; raudrī and
krodhā are in gāndhāra; vajrikā, prasāriṇī, prīti and mārjanī abide
by madhyama; kṣiti, raktā, sandīpanī and ālāpinī are in pañcama;
the three madantī, rohiṇī and ramyā in dhaivata and the two
śruti-s, ugrā and kṣobhiṇī dwell in niṣāda. (35b-38)
Twentytwo śruti-s have been distinguished into five classes. The
basis of this classification has not been made explicit in the text, nor
have the commentators found it necessary to elucidate it. However,
it seems that the different classes of śruti-s have something to do with
the relationship of notes and the rasa-s or the aesthetic colours attributed
to them in the ancient theory of Indian music. This is implied in their
nomenclature and elucidated as under :
(i) Dīptā, 'dazzling'; literally, illumined,
(ii) Āyatā, 'vast'; literally, extended,
(iii) Mṛdu, 'tender'; literally, soft,
(iv) Madhyā, 'moderate'; literally, medium or central, and
(v) Karuṇā, 'compassion'.
The names signify tonal sequence in melodic development and are
representative of emotional colour; this aspect would be more clear with
the further classification of the classes, as it follows.
The distribution of śruti-classes among the different notes is illus-
trated in the following chart (No. 6), which at once elucidates the rela-
tionship of a particular note with the different śruti-classes and also the
relationship of a particular śruti-class to different notes. The numbers
in the squares indicate the position of a particular śruti in the group of
śruti-s constituting a particular note.
śruti-classes and svaras

2. It is notable that raktikā is not mentioned in the verses 35 b-38.
   However raktā which does not appear here is mentioned.

140 Treatment of Svara
The five śruti-classes are further subdivided each having quite a few
varieties. That means, each śruti belongs to a class which implies a
class attribute common to all the śruti-s of the class and that class
comprehends a few varieties implying special traits along with the class
character. This specific character seems to be the association of a
particular class-śruti with particular notes. For example, dīptā is asso-
ciated with four notes and is said to be of four varieties, āyatā is asso-
ciated with five notes and has five varieties and so on, as it is illustrated
in the following chart (No. 7).
The chart illustrates the subdivisions of the śruti-classes, represent-
ing their class characters as distributed among the svara-s, indicating
thereby their specific traits. The names in the squares pertain to the
class subdivisions. The number alongside indicates the position of the
śruti in the śruti-structure of the svara. The chart illustrates the subject
matter of verse Nos. 35b-38 as well.
Subdivisions of śruti-classes distributed among the svara-s
Svara or note / śruti class names signifying general characters
signifying specific / dīptā | āyatā | mṛdu | madhyā | karuṇā
Ṣaḍja tīvrā-1 kumudvatī-2 mandā-3 chandovatī-4
Ṛṣabha raktikā-3 rañjanī-2 dayāvatī-1
Gāndhāra raudrī-1 krodhā-2
Madhyama vajrikā-1 prasāriṇī-2 prīti-3 mārjanī-4
Pañcama sandīpanī-3 kṣiti-1 raktā-2 ālāpinī-4
Dhaivata rohiṇī-2 ramyā-3 madantī-1
Niṣāda ugrā-1 kṣobhiṇī-2
(Chart 7)
(31b-35a)
Chart No. 7 graphically illustrates the position of these particular
śruti-s in the different note-intervals. The names of these śruti-s are
suggestive of their aesthetical value as related to their tonal quality.
Contemplating upon the value or the purpose of classification of śruti-s
briefly, ‘S’ suggests that they are perhaps designed to arouse the feelings
or the affections implied by their names. This hypothesis is quite
plausible and the whole scheme of this śruti-classification needs to be
scientifically investigated. (35 b-38)
Section 3 : Nāda, śruti and svara
(v) स्वराणां स्थानत्रयम्
ते मन्द्रमध्यताराख्यस्थानभेदात्त्रिधा मताः ।
(v) Three sthāna-s (registers) of svara-s : (39ab)
These (svara-s) are considered as threefold according to
the different registers known as mandra, madhya and tāra, i. e.,
low, medium and high. (39ab)
Having dealt with the śruti-s, the śruti-classes and the develop-
ment of notes out of them, the author now proceeds to demonstrate the
differentiation and the classification of notes.
In the first instance the notes are classified according to their
sthāna i. e., the place of perceptible effort for voice-production in the
human organism. It has already been pointed out by the author (verse 7
ante) that nāda manifests itself in three places, viz., in the region of the
heart, throat and the cerebrum. These are the three sthāna-s from
which notes are produced. Corresponding to these three, the notes
are classified in three registers or to speak loosely, three octaves, viz.,
mandra, madhya and tāra. Mandra represents what is known as chest-
voice, madhya is throat-voice and tāra is the high (head).
(vi) द्वादश विकृतस्वराः
त एव विकृतावस्था द्वादश प्रतिपादिताः ॥ ३९॥
च्युतोऽच्युतो द्विधा षड्जो द्विश्रुतिविकृतो भवेत् ।
साधारणे काकलीत्वे निषादस्य च दृश्यते ॥४०॥
(vi) Twelve modified notes : 39c-46b
These notes, in their modified form, are established as
twelve. (39cd)
Ṣaḍja, modified by two śruti-s in two different ways is
(called) lowered ṣaḍja¹ and unmoved² ṣaḍja respectively by the

1. Cyuta literally means sub-standard, fallen or lowered in pitch.
2. Acyuta is steadfast, standard and unmoved.

142 Treatment of Svara
साधारणे श्रुतिं षाड्जीमृषभः संश्रितो यदा ।
चतुःश्रुतित्वमायाति तदैको विकृतो भवेत् ॥४१॥
साधारणे त्रिश्रुतिः स्यादन्तरत्वे चतुःश्रुतिः ।
गान्धार इति तद्‌भेदौ द्वौ निःशङ्केन कीर्तितौ ॥४२॥
मध्यमः षड्जवद् द्वेधाऽन्तरसाधारणाश्रयात् ।
पञ्चमो मध्यमग्रामे त्रिश्रुतिः कैशिके पुनः ॥४३॥
मध्यमस्य श्रुतिं प्राप्य चतुःश्रुतिरिति द्विधा ।
धैवतो मध्यमग्रामे विकृतः स्याच्चतुःश्रुतिः ॥४४॥
कैशिके काकलीत्वे च निषादस्त्रिचतुःश्रुतिः ।
प्राप्नोति विकृतौ भेदौ द्वाविति द्वादश स्मृताः ॥४५॥
ते शुद्धैः सप्तभिः सार्धं भवन्त्येकोनविंशतिः ।
process of sādhāraṇa³ (overlapping) and the 'kākalisation'⁴ of
niṣāda. (40)
When, in the process of ṣaḍja-sādhāraṇa⁵ (the overlapping
of ṣaḍja), ṛṣabha absorbs one śruti of ṣaḍja, it attains the
Though the notes in their original form are found to be seven only,
it is said that in actual usage when their standard pitch is modified
either by augmenting it or by lowering it, they are known to be twelve
in all. The modified notes or the vikṛta svara-s are discussed in the
following few verses. (39cd)
The modification of notes is dealt with from verse 40 to 45 and
in this space the author explains how the modified notes are formed and
why they number twelve.
Ṣaḍja is modified to the extent of two śruti-s in two different ways,
viz. (i) by losing its note-śruti (i. e., 4th) to the advantage of ṛṣabha and
its initial śruti (i. e. 1st) towards niṣāda, and (ii) by yielding its first two
śruti-s to niṣāda. The first process is called cyuta-ṣaḍja-sādhāraṇa (the
overlapping of lowered ṣaḍja) and affects the position of the note-śruti
of ṣaḍja which is technically called cyuta-ṣaḍja (lowered ṣaḍja), and the
second process is known as the kākalītva of niṣāda, by which niṣāda gains
3. Sādhāraṇa refers to ṣaḍja-sādhāraṇa.
4. When niṣāda is augmented by gaining two śruti-s of ṣaḍja, it is
transformed into kākalī-niṣāda and this transformation of niṣāda is
technically named as "the kākalisation of niṣāda."
5. In the text only sādhāraṇa is mentioned, but it is the ṣaḍja-
sādhāraṇa that is intended; it has been made explicit to avoid confusion
in the English version.
interval⁶ of four śruti-s, and that is its only modified form.
(41ab)
Gāndhāra assumes two modified forms as enunciated by
Śāraṅgadeva⁷ viz., with three śruti-s in the process of
madhyama⁸-sādhāraṇa (the overlapping of madhyama) and with
four śruti-s in the case of antaragāndhāra.⁹ (41c-42b)
the two initial śruti-s of ṣaḍja leaving its note-śruti quite unaffected. The
second process is, therefore, associated with acyuta ṣaḍja, i.e., unlowered
or unmoved ṣaḍja. This subject matter is dealt with in detail in Section
5 of this chapter. It may, however, be noted that the modified ṣaḍja
has only two śruti-s viz., the second and the third, and the third and
the fourth respectively of the original four.
'S' raises an interesting question. In the case of unmoved ṣaḍja,
ṣaḍja retains its śruti-note intact while yielding two initial śruti-s to
niṣāda; therefore, its pitch remains unaffected, how then can its tone be
called modified? As it is obvious and also explained by 'S', normally
ṣaḍja is at the distance of four-śruti-interval from niṣāda which in its
modified state is reduced to that of two-śruti-interval. Now, since the
tonal value of the notes is essentially relative in this system, the reduction
in the extension of ṣaḍja is adequately felt. Thus, even though the
pitch remains the same, the duration and the tonal content is modi-
fied. (40)
In the process of the overlapping of ṣaḍja, its first śruti is gained by
the preceding niṣāda and its fourth śruti is attached by ṛṣabha, the
extent of which is extended thereby to four-śruti-interval; and this is the
only modification undergone by ṛṣabha. Ṛṣabha is thus composed of the
śruti-s numbering 4th to 7th from the first of ṣaḍja.
Just as ṣaḍja is modified in two forms viz., by the overlapping of
ṣaḍja and the 'kākalisation' of niṣāda, so also madhyama is modified in
6. Catuḥ-śrutitva consists in having the note-interval of four śruti-s.
7. Niḥśaṅka of the text literally means 'free from doubts' and is
an epithet of Śārṅgadeva.
8. Only sādhāraṇa is spoken of in the text but, obviously madhyama-
sādhāraṇa is applicable here, and so it has been made explicit.
9. Antaratva consists in gāndhāra gaining two initial śruti-s of
madhyama which by itself remains of two-śruti-measure only. Thus, by
this action, gāndhāra gains a medial (antara) position between standard
gāndhāra and madhyama, and is therefore called antara-gāndhāra, i e.
medial gāndhāra. Antaratva, therefore, signifies the 'medial position'
of gāndhāra.

144 Treatment of Svara
Madhyama, like ṣaḍja is (modified) in two ways viz., by
taking resort to the process of 'antara' and that of sādhāraṇa'.
(42cd).
Pañcama is of three śruti-measure in the madhyama-grāma,
while in the madhyama-sādhrāaṇa¹⁰ (the overlappng of
madhyama), gaining one śruti from madhyama it extends to
four śruti-s; and is thus modified in two ways. (42-44b)
Dhaivata of madhyama-grāma is modified to be of four
śruti- interval. Niṣāda is modified in two ways viz., in its kaiśika
and kākalī forms having three and four śruti-s respectively.
And so they make twelve modified forms, which along with
the seven standard¹¹ notes become nineteen in all. (44c-46b).
two ways viz. (i) by yielding one śruti to gāndhāra and one to pañcama,
an example of cyuta (lowered)-madhyama, and (ii) by affording its two
initial śruti-s to gāndhāra, an example of acyuta (unmoved)-madhyama.
The former mode is called madhyama-sādhāraṇa (the overlapping of
madhyama) and the latter is known as antara-sādhāraṇa.
Thus, when gāndhāra is modified by the overlapping of madhyama,
it gains its initial śruti and is thereby constituted of three śruti-s viz.,
the 8th, 9th and 10th; and when it is modified by the medial position of
gāndhāra (antaratva) it appropriates two initial śruti-s of madhyama to
itself and the number of its śruti-s swells to four, viz, 8th to 11th. This
latter gāndhāra of four śruti-s is called antara gāndhāra. Thus gāndhāra
has two modified forms, viz., sādhāraṇa (i.e., the one consequent upon
madhyama-sādhāraṇa) and antara (i e., antara-gāndhāra) constituted respec-
tively by śruti-s numbering 8th to 10th and 8th to 11th from the first of
ṣaḍja. (41-42b)
In the modification of gāndhāra, the two processes of the overlap-
ping of madhyama and the medial position of gāndhāra have been explain-
ed with reference to gāndhāra. Now, we have to consider them from
the point of view of madhyama.
Madhyama is constituted by the śruti-s numbering 10 to 13 in the
unmodified series. By the process of overlapping ma lends 10th śruti to
10. Kaiśika is another name for sādhāraṇa.
11. The word śuddha has to be interpreted with reference to the
word vikṛta. Vikṛta, simply means modified and therefore śuddha would
mean unmodified. But since that is a negative expression and the
general tenure of the term śuddha is rather positive, it seems it would
be better to render it as 'standard'.
SECTION ...
ga and 13th śruti to pa and retains 11th and 12th śruti-s itself. In the
process of the medial movement (antaratva) of gāndhāra ma yields 10th
and 11th śruti-s to ga, and retains only 12th and 13th śruti-s. So, these
are the two modified forms of madhyama, constituted respectively of
11th, and 12th, and 12th and 13th śruti-s. (42cd)
There is an obvious similarity between the modifications of ṣaḍja
and madhyama as previously pointed out. With respect to the grāma-s,
we are going to be informed adequately in the next Section of this chap-
ter. For the present, it may be understood roughly that a grāma signi-
fies a series of notes related in a certain order. Two such scales were
in practice. viz., ṣaḍja-grāma, having ṣaḍja as its prominent note and
madhyama-grāma, having madhyama as its prominent note. Pañcama is
established on the 17th śruti in ṣaḍja-grāma and on the 16th śruti in
madhyama-grāma. This is one way how the two grāma-s are distinguished
from each other; of course this also affects the relative position of other
notes which we shall see in due course.
Now, with this background we can follow the text. In the
madhyama grāma, pañcama comprises the 14th, 15th and the 16th śruti-s,
whereas in the ṣaḍja grāma, it also has the 17th śruti which is consider-
ed to be the note-śruti; and therefore, the '16-śruti' pañcama is one of the
modifications of the standard pañcama. Another modification occurs by
the process of the overlapping of madhyama (i e madhyama-sādhāraṇa),
when it gives up 13th śruti which is absorbed by the pañcama of
madhyama grāma. The standard form of the pañcama of madhyama-grāma
comprises of three śruti-s only, and when it gains one śruti from
madhyama its extent widens to four śruti-s, i. e., 13th to 16th, and this
constitutes another modification of pañcama. (42c-44b)
While pañcama is established on the 16th śruti in madhyama-grāma,
the 17th śruti which is the note-śruti of pañcama in ṣaḍja-grāma is released
and absorbed by dhaivata, which consequently comprises the śruti-s
numbering 17 to 20 i.e., four in contrast with the standard three viz.
18 to 20 of the ṣaḍja-grāma. Thus, this is the only modification of
dhaivata.
Kaiśika is another name for sādhāraṇa Kaiśika-niṣāda which is a
product of the overlapping of ṣaḍja when it yields its initial śruti to
niṣāda, swelling it to three śruti-s in extent viz., 21st and 22nd and 1st.
Similarly, niṣāda is transformed into kākalī-niṣāda when it gains two
initial śruti-s of ṣaḍja and comprises 21st, 22nd and 1st and 2nd śruti-s.
Thus niṣāda has two modified forms respectively known as kaiśika-niṣāda
and kākalī-niṣāda.
The twelve modified notes as related to the standard (śuddha) notes
can be studied at a glance from the following chart :
10

146 Treatment of Svara
Modified notes as related to standard notes in terms of śruti-s

1. Cātaka is a bird of poetic convention. It is held that this
   bird takes only rain-water. Kunhan Raja's note in this
   respect is quite interesting and is reproduced verbatim:
   "Cātaka is a mythological bird supposed to have holes in the
   neck, and as such, unable to drink water in the ordinary
   way; they drink water remaining with their breast upwards
   when rain falls, so that the water does not leak out through
   the holes."
2. K. R. renders it as 'ram'.
3. Heptad is used as an equivalent of Sanskrit saptaka, which is
   conceived in place of the octave.

148 Treatment of Svara
He also relates certain psychological states of mind, aesthetic
moods with the notes and the animals as reproduced in the following
table. The rasa-s or the aesthetic moods are in theory attributed to
various notes by our author as well.
Notes as related to the birds and animals and the rasa-s

1. Vadī, literally means speaker i. e., the note that frequently sounds.
2. Saṁvadī, literally means the corresponding note, the note that converses in tune with the sonant, with the vadī.
3. Vivadī, literally means the opponent, the disputant i e., the note of discord
4. Anuvadī, literally means that which sounds afterwards, which follows i.e., the note that supports the sonant.
   Section 3 : Nada, Śruti and Svara 149
   श्रुतयो द्वादशाष्टौ वा ययोरन्तरगोचराः ॥४८॥
   मिथः संवादिनौ तौ स्तो निगावम्यविवादिनौ ।
   रिधयोरेव वा स्यातां तौ तयोर्वा रिधावपि ॥४९॥
   शेषाणामनुवादित्वं वादी राजाऽत्र गीयते ।
   संवादी त्वनुसारित्वादमात्योऽभिधीयते ॥५०॥
   विवादी विपरी तत्वाद्धीरैरुक्तो रिपूपमः ।
   performance is most frequently used. The notes having an
   interval of eight or twelve śruti-s are mutually consonant.
   Ni and ga are dissonant to all other notes, or to ri and dha
   only, or ri and dha too are their dissonants. The rest of the
   notes are related as assonants. (47c-50a)
   The sonant among them⁵ is considered to be the ruler,
   while the consonant, being in concert with it, is called the
   minister; the dissonant being antagonistic is likened by the
   sages to an enemy, the assonant⁶, however, since it follows
   the king as well as the ministers, is like a servant. (50b-51)
   speaker. The name itself is suggestive of its function viz., the one that
   sounds frequently, and thereby establishes the melodic pattern of rāga.
   Generally, the sonant is also the fundamental note (the tonic), specially
   in the jati and grama-rāga-s.
   'K' defines saṁvādī i.e., consonant as the note which, in conso-
   nance with the sonant, creates the quality of delightfulness in a rāga (a
   melodic structure) and helps to maintain it. 'S' raises the point that,
   whereas Śārṅgadeva has spoken of eight or twelve śruti-intervals being
   the necessary condition for consonance of notes, Mataṅga and Dattila
   have mentioned nine or thirteen śruti-s as constituting the required inter-
   val. Now, in order to answer this question as well as to grasp the whole
   concept of consonance of notes, it is necessary to examine the statements
   of Mataṅga and Dattila. Mataṅga says :
   "The notes placed at the interval of nine or thirteen śruti-s are
   mutually consonant" (as quoted by 'S').
5. That is, the four types of notes viz., the sonant, the consonant, the assonant and the dissonant.
6. The assonant is like a servant, in so far as it has no other func-
   tion except to strengthen the leading note in concordance with
   the consonance; it has no individuality of its own.

150 Treatment of Svara
It is important to note that Mataṅga lays down the condition of
the notes being of identical śruti-measure, in addition to the required
note-interval of nine or thirteen śruti-s. Following Mataṅga, Abhinav-
gupta elaborates the concept of samaśrutikatā (identity of śruti-measure)
of a tone with reference to the last śruti of the preceding tone. Thus
Bharata has enumerated the following pairs of consonant notes in the
ṣaḍja-grāma : sa-ma, sa-pa, ri-dha and ga-ni based on 9 and 13 śruti-
intervals. What is notable is that he has not included the pair of ma-ni
which implies a 9 śruti-interval. This is so because ma and ni being at a
distance of 4 and 2 śrutis from the last śruti-s of their respective preceding
notes are not identical in their śruti-measure. Thus the phenomenon of
svara-saṁvāda which is inaccurately identified as the consonance of notes,
is not only an acoustical but also a melodic phenomenon. In the former
case it signifies the relation of svara-s in terms of the śruti-interval obtain-
ing in-between them and in the latter case it refers to the identity of śruti-
measure constituting them. The melodic effect of this aspect of svara-
saṁvāda is amply demonstrated by reciprocal triads formed by the con-
sonance of notes as defined above. For example, Brihaspati points out that
in case of ma-ni, which has been excluded by Bharata from the consonant
pairs, 'ma-ga-ri' cannot be reciprocated by ni as 'ni-dha-pa', the reciprocal
triad would be 'sa-ni-dha' and not 'ni-dha-pa'. Hence ma-ni have not been
spoken of as having saṁvāda" (cf. I.M.J. No. 7, p. 60 and P.L.S.: I.M.J.
Nos. 11-12, p. 57).
Incidentally the minute difference between the concept of conso-
nance in western music and saṁvāda of Indian music is also made clear
through the concept of samaśrutikatā.
Furthermore, as 'S' explains, Mataṅga includes the note-śruti of
the note with which consonance is established in the number of śruti-s
forming the interval, whereas Śārṅgadeva excludes it; that is why
Śārṅgadeva speaks of eight and twelve śruti-interval and (Bharata),
Mataṅga and Dattila add one more to state as nine and thirteen-śruti-
interval. For example, take the consonance of sa-pa. The note-śruti
of sa is 4th and that of pa is 17th; and if, while measuring this interval,
one counts from 4th (including it) to 16th it would make for a thirteen-
śruti interval but if the 4th is excluded, then it would make for a
twelve-śruti interval. The consonance of notes is reflected in the
following chart :
Section 3 : Nāda, Śruti and Svara 151
Sonants and consonants

152 Treatment of Svara
he says "Notes extending to two śruti-s are dissonants". The function
of dissonants is defined by Mataṅga and elucidated by 'S' to the
purport that the notes that can only disturb and destroy the melodic
structure of a rāga, established in the configuration of the fundamental
note (tonic), the assonant and the consonant notes put together, are
dissonant. Again this yardstick has to be applied through the principle
of substitution i. e., if ga is substituted for ri or vice versa, then the
mode and the melodic pattern of the composition are disturbed, and
consequently there is loss of aesthetic effect.
The notes that are not mutually related either as consonants or as
dissonants are considered to be assonants. 'S' quotes Mataṅga who says
that notes short of one śruti interval are assonants. Thus, for example
he says, if ṛṣabha is used for ṣaḍja, dhaivata for pañcama, ṛṣabha for
pañcama, or dhaivata for ṣaḍja or vice versa, the mode of the melodic
pattern is not adversely affected. 'S' adds ṛṣabha for madhyama, and
dhaivata for madhyama and vice versa in this line.
But what is the function of assonants? Anuvādī literally means
that which sounds after (the dominant) i.e., the note that follows or
supports the sonant. Mataṅga also lays down that "the function of the
assonant is to fortify and strengthen the sprit of the melodic pattern
established by the sonant." (47c—50a)
The relationship of the four classes or functions of the notes is illus-
trated by a metaphor. Just as it is the king who commands in consulta-
tion with his minister, so also does the sonant function in close coordi-
nation with the consonant, and yet enjoys the supremacy of the king.
The assonants are so many servants working for the sonant and the
consonant, strengthening them; and the dissonant is like the enemy of
the whole team. (50b—51)
(ix) स्वराणां कुल-जाति-वर्ण-दैवतर्षि-च्छन्दोरस कथनम्
गीर्वाणकुलसंभूताः षड्जगान्धारमध्यमाः ।
पञ्चमः पितृवंशोत्थो रिधावृषिकुलोद्भवौ ॥५२॥
(ix) Lineage, caste, colour, continent, sage, deity, metre
and rasa (aesthetic delight) of the svara-s : 52-60b
Ṣaḍja, gāndhāra and madhyama are of divine origin¹,
pañcama has arisen from the lineage of manes, ṛṣabha and

1. Gīrvāṇakula, literally means the house of gods', or in fact, the
   con ept 'kula' is akin to the concept of cominune; thus the
   expression implies that sa, ma and pa are descended from the
   community of gods.
   Section 3 : Nāda, Śruti and Svara 153
   निषादोऽसुरवंशोत्थो ब्राह्मणाः समपञ्चमाः ।
   रिधौ तु क्षत्रियौ ज्ञेयौ वैश्यजाती निगौ मतौ ॥५३॥
   शूद्रावन्तरकाकल्यौ स्वरौ वर्णास्त्विमे क्रमात् ।
   पद्माभः पिञ्जरः स्वर्णवर्णः कुन्दप्रभोऽसितः ॥५४॥
   पीतः कर्बुर इत्येषां जन्मभूमिरथ ब्रुवे ।
   जम्बूशाककुशक्रौञ्च शाल्मलीश्वेतनामसु ॥५५॥
   द्वीपेषु पुष्करे चैते जाताः षड्जादयः क्रमात् ।
   वह्निवेधाः शशाङ्कश्च लक्ष्मीकान्तश्च नारदः ॥५६॥
   ऋषयो ददृशुः पञ्च षड्जादींस्तुम्बुरुर्धनी ।
   वह्निब्रह्मासरस्वत्यः शर्वश्रीशगणेश्वराः ॥५७॥
   सहस्रांशुरिति प्रोक्ताः क्रमात्षड्जादिदेवताः ।
   क्रमादनुष्टुब्गायत्री त्रिष्टुप् च बृहती ततः ॥५८॥
   पङ्क्तिरुष्णिक् च जगतीत्याहुश्छन्दांसि सादिषु ।
   सरी वीरेऽद्भुते रौद्रे धो बीभत्से भयानके ॥५९॥
   कार्यौ गनी तु करुणे हास्यशृङ्गारयोर्मपौ ।
   dhaivata are the progeny of the ṛṣi-s² (sages), while niṣāda has
   sprung from the demonic ancestry. (52-53a)
   Ṣaḍja, madhyama and pañcama are brahmins³, ṛṣabha and
   dhaivata are known as belonging to the princely class⁴, niṣāda
   We have already come across two classifications of notes; here are
   a few others on quite different grounds. The basis for these classifica-
   tions, as it will be seen, is peculiarly historical and cultural; and there-
2. Ṛṣi is usually translated as 'seer' or a sage; that being true,
   in this context a ṛṣi is the recipient of the vision of the mantra-s
   (i. e vedic hymns).
   3 Brahmin is the superior-most caste among the caste Hindus
   who comprise brāhmaṇas, kṣatriya-s and vaiśya-s, roughly con-
   forming to the three classes of Plato's ideal society viz., the
   philosophers, the rulers and warriors, traders and ploughmen.
   The fourth caste of śūdra comprises slaves and servants of
   lower class. Actually, the caste system of the Hindus is based
   on the four functional divisions of the human body viz., the
   head, the arms, the stomach and the feet.
3. Kṣatriya, literally means the warrior (class).

154 Treatment of Svara
and gāndhāra are considered to be in the merchant class⁵,
while the notes antara-gāndhāra and kākali-niṣāda are of the
servant class.⁶ (53b-54a)
Their respective colours are red⁷, pale yellow⁸, golden
yellow, sparkling white⁹, black, plain yellow and variegated.
(54b-55a)
Then I am to describe the lands¹⁰ of their origin.
The notes ṣaḍja etc., are respectively born in the continents
of Jambu, Śāka, Kuśa, Krauñca, Śālmali, Śveta and Puṣkara.
(55b-56b)
fore, peculiarly Indian in orientation. Moreover, it is not always possi-
ble to trace the historical-cum-mythological background in which the
classification and its nomenclature were significantly employed. For
example, one can hardly say anything about the classification of notes
based on their origin from the gods, manes, sages and demons, but one
can guess with obvious justification with respect to the other classifica-
tion based on caste. Incidentally these attributes go to project the
individual images of the notes lending them a personality.
Ṣaḍja, madhyama and pañcama have four śruti-s each, ṛṣabha and
dhaivata have three, niṣāda and gāndhāra have two; so obviously they
have been evaluated according to their śruti-value and assigned the
best, the middle and the lower position among the society of svara-s
(notes). However, antara and kākali are treated as outcastes since
they are not employed as the fundamental notes, and are therefore,
degraded from the position of full-fledged svaratva (i.e. the capacity, to
be an independent musical note). (52—54a)
There is a state of consciousness arrived at through yogic process in
which colour and sound appear in a unified perception. The notes have
been assigned particular colours here. These colours may be related to
the particular aesthetic effects subsequently attributed to the notes or
5. Vaiśya-s include traders, farmers, industrialists and the produ-
cers of every type.
6. Śūdra-s are those who are not free citizens, who are in the
service of other individuals etc.
7. Padmābha is interpreted by 'S' as red; literally it means
'shining like a lotus' as rendered by 'K. R.'. However, we do
have a red lotus and therefore, the interpretation of 'S' may
be taken to be authentic.
8. Piñjara is defined by 'S' as slightly yellow or yellowish.
9. Kunda is a flower and 'K. R.' identifies it with jasmine. 'S'
interprets it as brilliant and white.
10. Places of birth.
Section 3 : Nāda, Śruti and Svara 155
The ṛṣi-s¹¹ (sages) who discovered the first five¹² notes
commencing with ṣaḍja etc., respectively are Vahni¹³,
Brahmā¹⁴, Śaśāṅka¹⁵, Lakṣmīkānta¹⁶ and Nārada¹⁷,
while dhaivata and niṣāda were discovered by Tumburu.¹⁸
(56-57b)
they may even be objective facts that are subjectively perceived; but
nothing can authentically be said about it, since even the commentators
do not refer to the basis for this tradition. They seem to take these
things as a matter of course.
The world was divided into seven dvīpa-s according to the puranic
geography which is mixed up with mythology. A dvīpa is considered to
be an independent mass of land separated from the other dvīpa-s by an
ocean. Thus corresponding to the seven dvīpa-s seven oceans are also
conceived. These days, the concept of 'dvīpa' is taken as corresponding
to that of 'continent', though in technical details it is not necessarily
so. (54b—56b)
It will be observed that with respect to every note, or in other
words, regarding all the seven notes, certain characteristics are described
here, such as, the familyline, the colour, the continent of origin, the
seer, the presiding deity, metre and the aesthetic effect. To a critical
mind, this scheme is open to searching questions regarding the signifi-
cance of these individual characteristics as attributed to the different
notes. However, only a few general suggestions can be offered here
with a view to provide a certain perspective in which the true signifi-
cance of the scheme may be discovered.
11. Ṛṣi-s are considered to be the seers who have an immediate
perception of Truth or a fact.
12. That is, ṣaḍja, ṛṣabha gāndhāra, madhyama and pañcama.
13. Vahni, literally means fire and alludes to Agni, the god of fire.
14. Vedhas of the text refers to the creative aspect of the Divinity,
i. e. Brahmā.
15. Śaśāṅka refers to the 'moon'.
16. Lakṣmīkānta refers to Viṣṇu along with his consort Lakṣmī.
17. Nārada is not only a mythological figure, but also one of the
authorities in the tradition of the musical arts as mentioned
in the beginning of the text (cf. S. Raj, Vol. I, p. 667 for an
exhaustive note).
18. Tumburu is similarly another authority sanctified by musical
tradition. Thus Tumburu, like Nārada is a historical persona-
lity. He is described as an expert in divine music Vāyu-
purāṇa 69.47-49, a gandharva disciple of Nārada (Bhāgavata-
purāṇa, I.13.37-59). Tumburu is obviously associated with
Nārada in the Purāṇa-s.

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156 Treatment of Svara
The presiding deities of ṣaḍja etc., respectively are
Vahni, Brahmā, Sarasvatī¹⁹, Śiva²⁰, Viṣṇu²¹, Gaṇeśa²² and
the Sun²³, and the metres associated with them seriatim are
anuṣṭup, gāyatrī, triṣṭup, bṛhatī, paṅkti, uṣṇik and jagatī. (57c-59b)
In the vedic tradition, every vedic hymn, i.e., sūkta is endowed
with a seer, a presiding deity, a metre and so on; and it seems that the
present characterisation of notes in the above terms is an extension of
this tradition as applied to music. How far its application to music is
useful, practical and valid is a question of a detailed and a deeper
investigation.
Another obvious fact, as already hinted in this regard is that, all
these characteristics go to raise an individual image of each note. One
might well find the beginnings of the later rāga imagery in the Indian
music developing visual images of tonal structures expressed in line and
colour in their rudiments.
'S' has observed this phenomenon from quite a different angle
which is interesting and thought-provoking. He says that the allocation
of the musical notes to seven different continents as the places of their
origin and the association of seven seers etc. as well points out the fact
that the notes were admitted to be seven only, and not nine, including,
for example, the kākalī-niṣāda and the antara-gāndhāra. Thus, he raises
the question, "why indeed the notes are considered to be seven as a
rule ?", and suggests the following explanation : The number seven as
associated with the musical notes is based probably on the concept of
seven supportive tissues (spoken of in the Āyurveda) of the body such as
19. Terms such as Vahni and Brahmā have already been explained.
Sarasvatī is conceived as the goddess of learning, art and
literature in the puranic symbology.
20, 21. Śiva symbolises that aspect of the Hindu trinity which is
responsible for the dissolution of the creation and Viṣṇu is
the deity responsible for the state of the being in creation, i. e.
sthiti (sustenance).
22. Gaṇeśa, in the puranic mythology, is the son of Lord Śiva
and a god to be propitiated at the commencement of every
religious rite, ceremony or any new social or economic under-
taking.
23. The Sun, though grammatically correct, is yet a misleading
expression, for the presiding deity called Sun, is not inert
like the sun, but is the essence of the consciousness embodied
by it
The following notes (24-31) are prepared on the basis
of the glossary of technical words, appended to Ravi Shankar's
"My Music My Life".

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Section . . .
Ṣaḍja and ṛṣabha are employed in the expression of
heroism²⁴, wonder²⁵ and wrath²⁶; similarly, dhaivata is used
for abhorrence²⁷ and terror²⁸, gāndhāra and niṣāda for
skin, blood, flesh, etc., or on the concept of the seven psycho-physical
centres in the body, or as related to the seven continents. Kākalī-niṣāda
and antara-gāndhāra are not taken as notes independently as they are not
used as the dominant (tonic) notes. This is supported by a quotation
from Dattila to this effect (cf verses 16 and 17).
It is notable that while all other ṛṣi-s from Vahni to Nārada are
more or less mythological, perhaps with the exception of Nārada who is
semi-historical, Tumburu is a historical personality and a gandharva i.e.,
a musician. He is said to have discovered dhaivata and niṣāda (cf. a
discussion on the concept of gāndharva by Sadagopan-Prem Lata-
Brahaspati in the Indian Music Journal, Oct.-Nov. 1967), where it is
said by Brahaspati that dhaivata was discovered by him as an overtone
of madhyama. It seems that the discovery of dhaivata and niṣāda attribut-
ed to him is historical. (56c-57)
The concept of devatā or the presiding deity is once again vedic
in origin. It symbolises in concrete terms the abstract idea of a certain
classification of human consciousness of that particular age, which was
partly functional and objective in its comprehension of the creation and
partly subjective, being conditioned by the time-space of the age. For
example, the group of sun-gods headed by Savitṛ symbolise not only the
sun, but in fact the brilliance that characterises the sun and the stars
alike. Thus the discovery of the modern astronomy that the stars are
as many and more or less powerful suns, is no revelation to those who
are acquainted with the vedic symbolism. The Vedas have comprehend-
ed the truth of it in their own terms.
It is difficult to relate the application and the extension of this
symbolism to the musical notes, as it has already been said, but if any
significance has to be discovered, vedic symbolism must provide the
key.
24. Vīra is expressive of dignity, majesty and glory, courage and
heroism.
25. Adbhuta is expressive of wonderment, amazement, surprise,
exhilaration, and also the mixed feelings of anticipation.
26. Raudra depicts anger or excited fury.
27. Bībhatsa conveys the sentiment of hate, hostility and disgust
which is usually made explicit in dramas.
28. Bhayānaka represents the sensation of fear, fright and awe.
However, it is difficult to express this in music or a solo-
instrument.

pathos²⁹, and madhyama and pañcama for mirth³⁰ and con-
jugal love.³¹ (59c-60b)
Similarly, the particular metres that have been associated with the
notes are also vedic with the exception of anuṣṭup which was introduced
into the classical Sanskrit as well. This confirms the view that this
characterisation of the tones is a form of the extension of vedic symbo-
lism in the field of musical arts. In this context the value of its appli-
cation to music needs to be assessed for proper appreciation and under-
standing.
In this respect ‘S’ informs that these particulars are used in the
worship of the tones when ṣaḍja etc., are invoked by the seed-syllables
spoken of by Mataṅga. In this invocation specially the seer (ṛṣi),
the presiding deity (i. e. devatā) and the metre are utilised. ‘S’ gives a
long quotation from Mataṅga, referring to the seed syllables of notes,
which need not be reproduced here. This reflects the influence of Tantra
on the already existing tradition of vedic origin. (57c-59b)
It is said that music is a universal language : perhaps it is so
because it gives expression to the content of the heart without inter-
ference of thought, and therefore, appeals directly to the heart. Music,
as understood in the context of saṅgīta was primarily considered to be
an accessory art to dramatics and therefore, specific compositions such
as particular grāma-rāga-s etc., were employed in the depiction of parti-
cular sentiments, such as heroism, conjugal love, pathos and so on.
Thus the theory of rasa or aesthetic delight propounded for explaining
the phenomenon of literary and dramatical enjoyment was later applied
to music, even while it was taken to be an art by itself. That is how
various rāga-s are associated with various states of mind leading to the
enjoyment of various emotions. In this background the capacity of
different tones for producing or arousing particular mental states is
further analysed here.
This analysis of the character of tones with reference to their
capacity to express more effectively particular sentiments seems not
only to be historical and traditional, but also objective and scientific in
29. Karuṇa is sad, pathetic, tragic and expresses loneliness, longing
and yearning for the absent lover or God.
30. Hāsya is humorous and comic, happy and joyful and produ-
cing laughter.
31. Śṛṅgāra represents the universal creative force and embodies
romantic and erotic feelings, of love between man and woman,
the longing for the absent lover, and sensitivity to the beauty
of nature.
principle. Cf. Bharata XIX. 38, 39 (K. ed.) as the basis for Śārṅgadeva
to associate particular notes with particular rasa-s. However, svara in
this context refers to the tonic i. e., the first tone of the mūrcchanā and
implies the mūrcchanā based on it. So in fact the rasa or the aesthetic
delight associated with a particular tone is capable of being produced
not by an isolated tone but by the mūrcchanā commenced by that tone.
This view is supported by the implication of Bharata in the context of
rasa as associated with jātis (N. S. XXIX. 12 K. ed.)
Rasa is generally rendered as aesthetic delight, but that does not
elucidate the concept adequately. Rasa is that delight which is distin-
guished from pleasure, from sensation and sensual enjoyment in so far
as it is to be derived from a state of mind free from the limitations of
personal likes and dislikes. Rasa is the delight of a consciousness in
which emotion is experienced as a universal affection. Rasa is not only
contemplation but also a direct experience of beauty and love. The
concept of rasa is well elucidated as ‘brahmānanda-sahodara’, that is,
‘delight approximating to universal love’.
The association of rasa or an aesthetic mode with the individual
notes may not be directly an extension of the vedic tradition, but
certainly the concept is derived from mārga-saṅgīta i. e., ancient music,
and is therefore, an indirect extension of the vedic tradition. It is
worthwhile to remember that the Sāma veda is, according to some, the
source of musical arts.
Another point worthy of notice is that, quite in keeping with the
tradition of dramaturgy, only eight of the nine rasa-s of the literary
theory have been admitted as the basic aesthetic moods in music.
Śānta i e., ‘serenity’ is excluded as being impracticable for the purposes
of demonstration. (59c-60b)

अथ चतुर्थं ग्राममूर्च्छनाक्रमतानप्रकरणम्
क. ग्रामः
(i) ग्रामलक्षणम्
ग्रामः स्वरसमूहः स्यान्मूर्च्छनाऽऽदेः समाश्रयः ।
Section 4
Grāma, Mūrcchanā, Krama and Tāna
A. Grāma : 1-8
(i) The definition of grāma : 1ab
Grāma¹ is a group of tones that forms the basis of
mūrcchanā² etc. (1ab)
The individual identity of the tones has been established and
demonstrated in the previous Section. But, taken individually, the
tones do not have any utility, obvious or hidden. So, in order to be
effective the tones are organised and presented in a systematic form;
and therefore, the author now comes to deal with the basic pattern
of tonal organisation and the system of formal presentation related to it.
In this Section he deals with grāma which forms the basis of tonal
organisation of the system of formal presentation consisting of such
concepts as mūrcchana, the mūrcchana-series (krama) and the note-series
(tāna) which constitute the important features of ancient Indian music.
These concepts will be elaborated in their proper context, but for the
present we are concerned with the term 'grāma'.
The word grāma in Sanskrit means a village; but a village in
ancient times, and even today was and is more or less a community by
itself. So, when the word grāma is adapted in musical parlance, it
denotes, not merely a collection of musical notes, but a group of notes

1. Grama may be understood roughly as a basic scale, but for the
   sake of accuracy it has not been translated into English.
2. Mūrcchanā, though not translated in this work, like grama, may
   otherwise briefly be understood as modified gramic prototype
   scale.
   Section 4 : Grāma, Mūrcchanā, Krama and Tāna ...
   of relative tonal value organised into an integrated whole compre-
   hending within its fold the span of a saptaka (heptad), a scale of seven
   notes which serves as the basis for musical compositions.
   'K' elucidates that as in every-day life grāma refers to a group of
   people, so in musicology grāma refers to a group of svara-s; but, as the
   word svara refers to the linguistic vowels (vedic and classical) as well as
   the musical notes, this definition would be too wide. Also in the
   ordinary connotation of 'svara' is included the threefold vedic accent,
   viz., udatta, anudātta and svarita. It is in order to preclude such an
   interpretation as it were that grāma is stated to be such a group of svara-s
   which forms the basis of mūrcchanā etc. By etc., the author implies
   mūrcchanā-series, note-series (tāna), ornamentation (alaṁkāra), graces
   (gamaka) and the archetypes (jāti) of musical compositions such as
   grāma-rāga-s and so on.
   'S' also offers the same elucidation but with an alternative :
   probably, as he apprehends, one may not understand the order of tonal
   value, say in terms of the pitch involved in the grāma, if it is merely
   taken to be a group of tones. Therefore, this general statement is
   conditioned in so far as the group of notes has to be so organised, the
   tones have to be so related to each other, as to serve as the basis for
   mūrcchanā etc.
   'S' is obviously inspired in this view by the Saṅgīta-samaya-sāra,
   from which he quotes as under :
   “Grāma is a group of notes having ordered śruti-s and constituting
   mūrcchanā, tāna, jāti and aṁśa.”
   The emphasis is on the order inherent in the arrangement of the
   śruti-s, and therefore the svara-s. It is this order in the tonal value of
   the notes which distinguishes it from an indistinct jumble of sounds.
   Actually this point is implied in the text as one can clearly see it, though
   'K' has emphasised one aspect of it and 'S' has stressed the other.
   Kumbha's definition of grāma seems to be the most appropriate :
   “When the svara-s in consonance, having śruti-s in due order, serve
   as the basis of mūrcchanā etc., they are said to constitute a grāma”. (S.
   Raj. I. 2. 3. 9-10)
   That the tones of the grāma should be so related as to be in
   consonance with each other, makes this definition more explicit, clear
   and precise. Also, this definition gives due importance to śruti-s apart
   from the svara-s.
   M. S. Ramaswami Aiyar in his paper entitled, "The Question of
   Grāma-s" (pub. J. R. A. S., 1936, p. 632) explains grāma in these words :
   11

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162 Treatment of Svara
(ii) द्वौ ग्रामौ (धरातले)
तौ द्वौ धरातले तत्र स्यात्षड्जग्राम आदिमः ॥१॥
द्वितीयो मध्यमग्रामस्तयोर्लक्षणमुच्यते ।
(ii) The two grāma-s: 1c--2b
Two grāma-s are prevalent in this world¹, the first is
ṣaḍja-grāma and the second is madhyama-grāma; they are defin-
ed in the following terms. (1c--2b)
"A grāma was an unsingable group scale, so to speak, consisting of śuddha-
vikṛta svara-s collected together and preserved, as such, for the purpose
of selecting, from that group scale, any desired set of seven notes with a
graha or srarting point which set, when sung in the natural order of
ascent and descent was called mūrcchanā and which, when a harmonic
individuality was established with the help of aṁśa,, nyāsa, vādī and
saṁvādī etc., took the name of jātī³." Thus, it would seem that the con-
cept of grāma is deeply involved in other concepts of the grāma-mūrcchanā
system; and would therefore become more and more clear as we go on
comprehending them all as a part and parcel of a single scheme.
Grāma has been defined primarily to be a group of tones : there-
fore, the question is, why not have seven grāma-s, one by the name of
each tone ?, and why only two viz., ṣaḍja-grāma and madhyama-grāma?
'K' suggests that since the tones are employed in two forms viz., the
standard or unmodified and the modified, there are only two grāma-s
each to serve as the basis for the former and the latter i e., the ṣaḍja-
grāma for the standard tones and the madhyama-grāma for the modified
tones. However relevant this explanation may be, it can hardly be said
to be adequate; there are many other factors of musical practice that
make any other grāma impracticable, e.g., the principle that the tones
of a grāma should be in consonance with each other implies that the
consonant tones have to be of the same śruti-measure : and this implica-
tion cannot probably be realised elsewhere as accurately as in the ṣaḍja
and the madhyama-grāma-s.
3. As quoted by Nijenhuis in her Dattilam, p. 104.

1. Dharātale, literally means, 'on the face of the earth', i.e., in the
   mortal world, for gāndhāra-grāma is said to be prevalent in the
   heaven or among the gods.

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Section 4 : Grāma, Mūrcchanā, Krama and Tāna 163
(iii) षड्जमध्यमग्रामयोर्लक्षणम्
षड्जग्रामः पञ्चमे स्वचतुर्थश्रुतिसंस्थिते ॥२॥
स्वोपान्त्यश्रुतिसंस्थेऽस्मिन्मध्यमग्राम इष्यते ।
(iii) The definition of the ṣaḍja-grāma and the madhyama-
grāma: 2c--3b
Pañcama, if located on its¹ fourth śruti makes for the
ṣaḍja-grāma; but if established on the śruti immediately
preceding² it, makes for the madhyama-grāma. Alternatively³,
dhaivata of the ṣaḍja-grāma is of three śruti-s; while in
madhyama-grāma it has four śruti-s. (2c--3b)
The author is now suggesting the means of distinguishing the
ṣaḍja-grāma from the madhyama-grāma and he says that pañcama is the
crucial note for this purpose. In the ṣaḍja-grāma pañcama is located on
the seventeenth śruti and consequently dhaivata has three śruti-s, but in
madhyama-grāma, pañcama is located on the sixteenth śruti and conse-
quently one of the śruti-s is spared to dhaivata which sustains four śruti-s.
Thus the grāma-s can be distinguished either by the position and the
extent of pañcama or of dhaivata.
Incidentally, it is pointed out by 'S' that, whereas the pañcama of
the ṣaḍja-grāma is unmodifiable, the pañcama of the madhyama-grāma is
essentially a modified note. Even though there are other notes in
ṣaḍja-grāma such as ṣaḍja etc, that too are constant, yet pañcama presents
a contrast and that is why it becomes more significant.

1. Sva the use of this possessive pronoun in the terminology of
   Śārṅgadeva is quite significant; for, it excludes the śruti-s
   gained by the tones in their modified state. The fourth śruti
   of pañcama is the seventeenth śruti of the scale identified by
   'K' as ālāpinī of the karuṇā jāti (class).
2. Svopāntya—of the text literally means "its penultimate". Thus,
   the expression refers to the śruti immediately preceding the
   fourth śruti of pañcama, i.e., the third śruti, or the sixteenth
   of the scale, identified by 'K' as sandīpanī of the āyatā class.
3. 'S' points out that the use of the indeclinable tu in the text
   shows that the author prefers to stick to the first distinction
   for distinguishing the grāma-s, while he mentions the other
   alternative on behalf of other musicologists. Indeed the
   distinction of dhaivata is incidental to that of pañcama.

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164 Treatment of Svara
(iv) गान्धारग्रामः
यदा धस्त्रिश्रुतिः षड्जे मध्यमे तु चतुःश्रुतिः ॥३॥
रिमयोः श्रुतिमेकैकां गान्धारश्चेत्समाश्रितः ।
षट्श्रुतिं धो निषादस्तु धश्रुतिं सश्रुतिं श्रितः ॥४॥
गान्धारग्राममाचष्ट तदा तं नारदो मुनिः ।
प्रवर्तते स्वर्गलोके ग्रामोऽसौ न महीतले ॥५॥
(iv) The gāndhāra-grāma : 4-5
If gāndhāra takes one śruti each from ṛṣabha and
madhyama, dhaivata takes one śruti from pañcama, and niṣāda
takes one śruti each from dhaivata and ṣaḍja, it becomes
gāndhāra-grāma as declared by the sage Nārada¹. This grāma
is prevalent in the heaven², not in this world. (4-5)
In the tradition of Bharata, which Mataṅga seems to follow, only
two grāma-s, viz., the ṣaḍja-grāma and the madhyama-grāma are recognised
(cf. Br. D. 93). However Narada, of uncertain chronology, refers to a
third grāma called gāndhāra-grāma which, our author after Mataṅga
declares, was meant to be used exclusively by gods and not by human
beings. This grāma is derived by him from the ṣaḍja-grāma as described
in the text and accordingly can graphically be demonstrated as under :
The three grāma-s

(Chart 11)
Dhaivata takes one śruti from pañcama (of the ṣaḍja-grāma) and
yields one śruti to niṣāda, retaining in effect the same number of śruti-s.
1. Nārada is a very ancient name, known to Veda as the brahmarṣi
and the Purāṇas as devarṣi. He is associated with Bharata in the very first
performance of drama (N. S. Kashi ed, 5.32). Bharata mentions Nārada
as an authority on gandharva (N. S Kashi ed. 32.484). At least five per-
sonalities are discerned by the name of Nārada including the authors of
Nāradīya-śikṣā and Saṅgīta-makaranda (cf. S. Raj, Vol. 1, pp. 667-668 for a
detailed description). In short, Nārada is an ancient authority on music.
2. The heaven in the Hindu mythology, is the abode of gods;
those who accumulate merit by good deeds, are born as gods in heaven
and as the merit earned by them is exhausted, they are again reborn as
mortals in noble families. On the other hand, the gods are considered

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Section 4 : Grāma, Mūrcchanā, Krama and Tāna 165
(v) ग्रामत्रयस्य नामस्वराणां वैशिष्ट्यम्
षड्जः प्रधानमाद्यत्वादमात्याधिक्यतस्तथा ।
ग्रामे स्याद्विलोपित्वान्मध्यमस्तु पुरःसरः ॥६॥
एतत्कुलप्रसूतत्वाद् गन्धारोऽप्यग्रणीर्दिवि ।
(v) Justification for the three grāma-s: 6-7b
Ṣaḍja is the prime tone¹, for being in the first position
and also for having more ministers² in the grāma; madhyama
too is in the fore-front, because it cannot be omitted. Being
a descendant of the same family, even gāndhāra is the promi-
nent note in the heaven. (6-b)
Now, the question is why the three grāma-s are named particularly
after ṣaḍja, madhyama and gāndhāra, and not after any other notes such as
pañcama or niṣāda and so on. The author explains that it is because ṣaḍja
is the most prominent tone; and that for two reasons viz., it is the funda-
mental note and also it is in consonance with more notes than the other
-i.e., with pañcama and madhyama; whereas other tones have only one
consonant.
Madhyama is also an important note since it cannot be omitted
while composing standard (śuddha), hexatonic and pentatonic note-
series (tāna-s). 'K' also suggests another reason. Madhyama cannot be
omitted because the three notes preceding it are quite in balance with
the three notes succeeding it, and have a certain consonance in-between
them, but madhyama being centrally situated is isolated from that sort
of relationship and therefore serves as the boundary line between the
two sets of notes, making itself in-omissible. 'S' quotes Dattila regar-
ding the inomissibility of madhyama to the following effect.
"Pañcama in the madhyama-grāma, and dhaivata in the ṣaḍja-grāma
are inomissible, but however madhyama is so everywhere."
Gāndhāra-grāma is so named because it is a descendent of the same
family of gods to which ṣaḍja and madhyama belong and is thereby the
prominent note in heaven, where it is said to be prevalent. 'S' quotes
Mataṅga in support of this reasoning.
"Why indeed this particular nomenclature ṣaḍja and madhyama-
grāma ? To explain, they have been assigned grāma names because of
their being extraordinary, and that is because of their being born in the
family of gods." (cf. I.3.52ab ante)
1. Pradhāna literally means 'the chief', in other words, the most
important tone.
2. The consonant tones have been referred to as ministers (cf.
3.50 ante).

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166 Treatment of Svara
(vi) ग्रामाणां देवा।
क्रमाद् ग्रामत्रये देवा ब्रह्मविष्णुमहेश्वराः ॥७॥
(vi) The presiding deities of the grāma-s : 7cd
The presiding deity in each of the three grāmas respec-
tively¹ is Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva.² (7cd)
(vii) ग्रामाणां गानकालनियमः
हेमन्तग्रीष्मवर्षासु गातव्यास्ते यथाक्रमम् ।
पूर्वाह्णकाले मध्याह्ने ऽपराह्ने ऽभ्युदयार्थिभिः ॥८॥
(vii) The periods of time as related to the grāma-s: 8
They¹ are to be sung by those who are desirous of
prosperity in the forenoon², mid-day and in the afternoon, in
the winter, summer and in the rainy season respectively. (8)
The expression "gātavyāste" is quite significant and also thought-
provoking. The pronoun 'they' (te) obviously stands for the three
grāma-s ; and therefore two interesting questions arise in this particular
context : (i) are the grāma-s meant to be sung ? (ii) Is singing to be
restricted to winter in case of the ṣaḍja-grāma, to summer in case of the
madhyama-grāma and to rainy season in case of the gāndhāra-grāma ? and
if so, the gāndhāra-grāma cannot be used on earth as it is prevalent in the
heaven only; then how should one sing in the rainy season ? Moreover,
the grāma-wise distribution of the day into three parts presents another
problem on the same lines.
The grāma-s, it is generally held, were not meant to be sung ; but
what is probably collectively referred to in the text by way of grāma,
is the various types of melodic patterns or musical forms set in the
pattern of the particular grāma-s, such as jāti-s and rāga-s. It is interes-
ting to find 'S' quoting Mataṅga with reference to the function of grāma

1. That is, in the ṣaḍja, madhyama and gāndhāra-grāma, in respec-
   tive order.
2. The appellation Maheśvara (Mahā+īśvara—the great God) is
   used in the text.
3. That is, the three grāma-s.
4. Pūrvāhṇe, literally means 'in the anterior period' with reference
   to the middle period of the day, i. e.. the mid-day. Thus, we
   can also divide as forenoon, noon and afternoon.

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Section 4 : Grāma, Mūrcchanā, Krama and Tāna 167
in this context ; it is said—"the purpose of grāma is to regulate the
organisation of svara, śruti, mūrcchanā, tāna, jāti and rāga." Obviously,
these are the main factors of the ancient Indian music known as the
grāma-mūrcchanā-jāti system.
Thus, the expression 'they are to be sung', refers not merely to the
basic scales of the grāma-s, but all those melodic structures or musical
forms that are set into their basic pattern.
Accordingly, the text is suggestive of another function of the
three grāma-s viz., their individual suitability to a particular season.
The traditional six Indian seasons have been compressed into three for
functional purposes ; and on this basis one is led to infer that even
gāndhāra-grāma might have been prevalent sometimes in the forgotten
past All that the text implies is that the three grāma-s are more
suitable for the three respective seasons and the divisions for the day,
but not that they are exclusively to be employed on restricted basis.
ख. मूर्च्छनाः क्रमाश्च
(i) मूर्च्छनालक्षणम्
क्रमात्स्वराणां सप्तानामारोहश्चावरोहणम् ।
मूर्च्छनेत्युच्यते ग्रामद्वये ताः सप्त सप्त च ॥९॥
The mūrcchanā-s and krama-s : 9-26b.
(i) The definition of mūrcchanā: 9
The ascending and the descending movement of the
seven notes in successive order is called mūrcchanā. There¹
are seven mūrcchanā-s in each of the two² grāma-s. (9)
The concept of mūrcchanā is quite important in this system of
music, and should therefore be understood quite adequately.
The word 'mūrcchanā' is derived by Mataṅga from the Sanskrit
root mūrcch—to faint or to increase. Thus he defined mūrcchanā as :
"mūrcchyate yena rāgo hi mūrcchanā-ityabhisañjñitā" i.e., "That by which
the rāga develops is called mūrcchanā." Basically it is the movement,
ascending as well as descending of the seven notes which is called
mūrcchanā in the text. However, 'S' quoting Mataṅga in his support

1. That is, in this world excluding heaven.
2. That is, the ṣaḍja-grāma and the madhyama- grāma.

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168 Treatment of Svara
makes it clear that it is in fact the seven notes arranged in regular order
of ascent and descent which stand to be called as mūrcchanā i.e., in other
words, the action of ascent and descent, that is, the tonal movement is
not to be called mūrcchanā, as it is said by Mataṅga :
"The unit of seven notes in regular order of ascent and descent is
known to be the referent of the word mūrcchanā by the experts of the
subject."
Obviously a very subtle distinction has been made; for indeed, it
is the seven notes in the ascending or the descending movement in their
successive order that constitute mūrcchanā. The movement is quite
inherent in the tones if they are to form a mūrcchanā. Thus, the distinc-
tion is rather formal and may be construed as helpful in placing the
emphasis rightly on the tones, rather than on their movement. Ravi
Shankar defines mūrcchanā as, "scale-wise progressions in descending
motion from the fundamental notes." (cf. Glossary of Technical Words
'My Music, My Life').
The function of mūrcchanā is to develop, to enlarge and to spread
the rāga. Obviously, it is not possible to restrict the arrangement of
mūrcchanā-s to any one register, and as pointed out by 'K' in order to
show their range to be co-extensive with the three registers, Mataṅga,
speaks of mūrcchanā-s of twelve notes as well, but this seems unnecessary
in view of the two grāma-s being used conjointly, covering the three
registers. Kumbhā mentions Kohala and Nandikeśvara as supporting
Mataṅga in his view, but he totally rejects it by himself as technically
uncalled for (cf. S. Raj. 2.1.1. 352-357).
Thus it is settled, as per the text that there are seven mūrcchanā-s
in each grāma.

(ii) षड्जमध्यमग्रामस्थमूर्च्छनानां संज्ञाः
षड्जे तूत्तरमन्द्रा ऽऽदौ रजनी चोत्तरायता ।
शुद्धषड्जा मत्सरीकृदश्वक्रान्ता ऽभिरुद्गता ।।१०।।
मध्यमे स्यात् सौवीरी हरिणाश्वा ततः परम् ।
स्यात्कलोपनता शुद्धमध्या मार्गी च पौरवी ।।११।।
हृष्यकेति,
(ii) The names of the mūrcchanā-s of the ṣaḍja and madhyama-
grāma-s : 10-12a
The first in ṣaḍja-grāma is uttaramandrā which is followed
[by rajanī, uttarāyatā, śuddha-ṣaḍjā,] matsarīkṛtā, aśvakrāntā and

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Section 4 : Grāma, Mūrcchanā, Krama and Tāna 169
abhirudgatā. Madhyama-grāma has sauvīrī, hariṇāśvā, kalopanatā,
śuddhamadhyā, mārgī, pauravī and hṛṣyakā. (10-12a)
The names of these fourteen mūrcchanā-s seem to be quite significant
and some scholars have even ventured to speculate regarding their
literal signification as related to their musical content and aesthetic effect;
for example, the name of the first mūrcchanā of the ṣaḍja-grāma uttara-
mandrā, literally means, "the one that follows the mandra i. e., the lower
(heptad)" and this exactly tallies with its tonal position, since it com-
mences with the ṣaḍja of the middle heptad.
Now, the question (as raised by 'K') is, 'Why should the mūrcchanās
of the ṣaḍja-grāma begin with the ṣaḍja of the middle register?' i. e., why
not with some other note of, say, the lower register? And 'K' explains,
"that is so, because Bharata has ordained it that way," quoting him,
"mūrcchanā should be demonstrated on vīṇā with the tone madhyama
(madhyama svareṇa vaiṇavena mūrcchanā-nirdeśaḥ)". And then 'K' goes on
to quote Mataṅga in his interpretation of Bharata : "Mūrcchanā should
commence with the middle register in order to establish the lower and
the higher registers (madhya-saptakena mūrcchanā-nirdeśaḥ kāryo mandratāra-
sidhyartham)."
As far as the literal meaning is concerned, Bharata has spoken of
madhyama as the tone and not of madhya saptaka. However, Bharata
also lays down uttaramandrā as the first mūrcchanā, "ādya-hyuttaramandrā
syād etc." (cf. N. S. Ka. ed. XXVIII. 27). So in fact Śāṅgadeva follows
the tradition of Bharata and Mataṅga. Mataṅga however, seems to have
correctly elucidated Bharata, why uttaramandrā is taken as the first
mūrcchanā.

(iii) मूर्छनानामारम्भकस्वराः
, अथ तासां तु लक्षणं प्रतिपाद्यते ।
मध्यस्थानस्थषड्जेन मूर्छना ऽऽरभ्यते ऽग्रिमा ।।१२।।
(iii) The tonal form of the mūrcchanā-s : 12b-15
Their distinguishing character¹ is (now) being out-
lined.² The first mūrcchanā is commenced with the ṣaḍja of
'S' reproduces the mūrcchanā-s (in the ascending form) of the two
grāma-s in accordance with the text as under :

1. Lakṣaṇa, literally means a characteristic mark.
2. Lit. 'established' by demonstration.