सङ्गीतरत्नाकर: प्रथम भाग (शार्ङ्गदेव - स्वरगताध्याय सविस्तार व्याख्या व अनुवाद सहित)

120 Treatment of Svara
(ii) चतुःसारणा
व्यक्तये कुर्महे तासां वीणाद्वन्द्वे निदर्शनम् ॥१०॥
द्वे वीणे सदृशौ कार्ये यथा नादः समो भवेत् ।
तयोर्द्वाविंशतिस्तन्त्र्यः प्रत्येकं, तासु चादिमा ॥११॥
(ii) The fourfold string movement (catuḥ-sāraṇā): 10c-22
For their clear¹ exposition we are to demonstrate them
on a pair of vīṇā-s. Two vīṇā-s with twentytwo strings each,
may be produced similar² in every respect to sound³ alike.
as ṣaḍja-grāma. Thus, there are 9 śruti-s in this view which is attributed
to the flutists who are required to provide appropriate knobs for pro-
ducing all the notes by partial and full openings. Mataṅga also quotes
Bharata to support the threefold classification of notes on which is based
the ninefold śruti. The concept of 9 śruti-s is related to the triad of
notes and not the heptad. Then he puts forward some other views
along with Kohala who says, "some maintain twentytwo as the number
of śruti-s, while others, (in view of three registers) consider it to be
sixtysix, but others think it to be infinite."
We have already dealt with the view of the infinity of śruti-s as
untenable. The number sixtysix is admitted on the ground that there
is a difference in the pitch of the notes of the three registers; and
therefore their śruti-s should also be considered to be different. However,
as 'S' argues, this is not a fundamental or categorical difference as the
notes of the three registers as well as their śruti-s are recognised to be
the same. Thus the view holding twentytwo as the number of śruti-s
hold good and Śārṅgadeva seems to have settled this question once for
all, since after him this number is taken for granted.
To sum up, "śruti is that audible sound which at the conceptual
level is capable of being individually perceived, recognised and repro-
duced and at the perceptual level is free from resonance; such śruti-s are
twentytwo in number, and are the same in all the three registers." This
is the twofold technical meaning of the word śruti apart from which,
the word simply means—'that which is heard', i e., 'the audible'. The
Sanskrit word śruti is rendered into English by some as 'microtone'.

1. The minute śruti intervals are not easily discernible without
   being systematically demonstrated; and since it is difficult to
   do so vocally, vīṇā-s are pressed into service.
2. Similar in every detail of manufacture, and the test of their
   similarity lies in the resulting identity of the sound produced
   by them.
   कार्या मन्द्रतमध्वानो द्वितीयोच्चध्वनिर्मनाक् ।
   स्यान्निरन्तरता श्रुत्योर्मध्ये ध्वन्यन्तराश्रुतेः ॥१२॥
   अधराधरतीव्रास्तास्तज्जो नादः श्रुतिर्मतः ।
   वीणाद्वये स्वराः स्थाप्यास्तत्र षड्जश्चतुःश्रुतिः ॥१३॥
   स्थाप्यस्तन्त्यां तुरीयायामृषभस्त्रिश्रुतिस्ततः ।
   पञ्चमीतस्तृतीयायां, गान्धारो द्विश्रुतिस्ततः ॥१४॥
   अष्टमीतो द्वितीयायां, मध्यमोऽथ चतुःश्रुतिः ।
   दशमीतश्चतुर्थ्यां स्यात्पञ्चमोऽथ चतुःश्रुतिः ॥१५॥
   चतुर्दशीतस्तुर्यायां, धैवतस्त्रिश्रुतिस्ततः ।
   अष्टादश्यस्तृतीयायां, निषादो द्विश्रुतिस्ततः ॥१६॥
   एकविंश्या द्वितीयायां, वीणैकाऽत्र ध्रुवा भवेत् ।
   चलवीणा द्वितीया तु तस्यां तन्त्रीस्तु सारयेत् ॥१७॥
   स्वोपान्त्यतन्त्रीमानेयास्तस्यां सप्त स्वरा बुधैः ।
   ध्रुववीणास्वरेभ्योऽस्यां चलायां ते स्वरास्तदा ॥१८॥
   एकश्रुत्यपकृष्टाः स्युरेवमन्याऽपि सारणा ।
   श्रुतिद्वयलयादस्यां चलवीणागतौ गनी ॥१९॥
   ध्रुववीणोपगतयो रिधयोर्विशतः क्रमात् ।
   तृतीयायां सारणायां विशतः सपयो रिधौ ॥२०॥
   निगमेषु चतुर्थ्यां तु विशन्ति समपाः क्रमात् ।
   श्रुतिद्वाविंशतावेवं सारणानां चतुष्टयात् ॥२१॥
   ध्रुवाश्रुतिषु लीनायामित्यता ज्ञायते स्फुटम् ।
   अतः परं तु रक्तिघ्नं न कार्यमपकर्षणम् ॥२२॥
   The first⁴ string may be so fixed as to produce the lowest⁵
   possible sound, and the second one in order to sound a little
3. 'K' thinks that the string fixed so as to be the nearest in the
   the approach of the player is the first string.
4. Here we are concerned with musical sound and not merely with
   sound. Therefore, the lowest possible sound implies that the
   string should be stretched not only to make an audible sound
   but to make the sound which is the lowest and also capable of
   resounding. As 'S' puts it, the sound thus produced should be
   delightful.

122 Treatment of Svara
bit⁶ higher than that, maintaining continuity in between the
two śruti-s and disallowing any intervening audible sound.
Thus, the strings fixed one below the other are successively
of higher and higher pitch, and the sound produced by them
is known as ‘śruti’⁷ (10c-13b)
To establish the notes on the two vīṇā-s let ṣaḍja which
is of four śruti - measure, be fixed on the fourth string; ṛṣabha
of three śruti-measure on the third string as counted from the
fifth⁸; gāndhāra of two śruti-measure on the second string
from the eighth⁹; madhyama of four śruti-measure on the
fourth string from the tenth¹⁰; pañcama also of four śruti-
measure on the fourth string from the fourteenth¹¹; dhaivata
of three śruti-measure on the third string from the eighteenth¹²
and niṣāda of two śruti-measure on the second string from the
twentyfirst.¹³ (13c-17a)
Let one of these two vīṇā-s be kept invariable¹⁴ and
the other one as variable¹⁵; and in the latter, one may
move¹⁶ the strings. (17b-d)
In the first movement, the seven notes of the variable
vīṇā¹⁷ have to be brought over¹⁸ by the experts¹⁹ to the
6. The expression ‘a little bit’ is explained forthwith in the text
that follows immediately, i. e. to the extent that no other
sound intervenes and the continuity in hearing is maintained.
7. The twentytwo strings fixed in this manner, when plucked will
sound in twentytwo śruti-s. This number is further to be
verified and proved beyond doubt. But in the meanwhile,
every sound produced by these is called śruti.
8. The seventh string if counted from the first.
9. The ninth ” ” ” ”
10. The thirteenth ” ” ” ”
11. The seventeenth ” ” ” ”
12. The twentieth ” ” ” ”
13. The twenty second ” ” ” ”
14. Literally, dhruva means immutable, constant.
15. Literally, cala implies adjustability in this context.
16. The precise meaning of this term is elucidated in the next
verse.
17. This expression is implicit in ‘tasyām’ of the text which is
related to 17d above.
18. This is more or less a literal translation of āneyaḥ of the text,
which has been preferred in order to preserve the underlying
feeling that an experiment is being conducted; for otherwise
the purport is that the notes have to be shifted from their
original strings.

Section 3 • ...
immediately preceding²⁰ strings; and thereby its notes are
lowered by one śruti each with reference to those of the
invariable vīṇā. The remaining²¹ movements may as well
be similarly carried out. (18-19b)
In the second²² movement, due to the fusion²³ of two
śruti-s the ga and ni of the variable vīṇā have been absorbed²⁴
by ri and dha respectively of the invariable vīṇā. (Similarly)
in the third movement ri and dha have merged into sa and
pa respectively; while in the fourth movement sa, ma and pa
have fused with ni, ga and ma respectively.²⁵ (19c-21b)
The concept of śruti and the number of śruti-s, i.e., twentytwo, is
not based merely on subjective experience of the nādī-s, but as clearly
defined, the different śruti-s can be produced at will, recognised as indi-
vidual entities and so demonstrated. Thus, the concept of śruti is
objective and scientific in so far as it is demonstrable.
The procedure for this demonstration is quite simple and is said to
have been attempted successfully with tangible results. This topic is
dealt with in the text extending from verse no. 10c to 22 and the whole
process is technically called ‘catuḥ-śaraṇā’, which will be explained later.
However, the technique of demonstration is open to some serious
objections; for example, Pt. Omkarnath Thakur points out the following
difficulties in the process (cf. Praṇavabhāratī, pp. 64, 65 and Saṅgītāñjalī
pt. V, p. 91) :
19. The experiment has to be conducted very carefully and under
expert guidance.
20. The original strings are the 4th, 7th, 9th, 17th, 20th and
22nd; and now, the notes have to be placed respectively on
the 3rd, 6th, 8th, 12th, 16th and the 21st strings.
21. That is, the second, third and the fourth movements may also
be carried out by lowering the pitch of the notes by one śruti
each with reference to their standard pitch in the invariable
vīṇā, and the lowering is effected by moving to the proximate
strings.
22. Literally, in ‘this’ with reference to the previous line.
23. Laya is indicative of the loss of distinction of individuality.
24. Viśataḥ lit enter, is the most appropriate expression whereby
the note that merges is absorbed by the one with which it
merges.
25. It may be borne in mind that this fusion is with reference to
the invariable vīṇā. Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, and ni, it may be
noted, are the diminutive forms of the seven notes called
ṣaḍja, ṛṣabha, gāndhāra, madhyama, pañcama, dhaivata and niṣāda.

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124 Treatment of Svara
Thus, the exact number²⁶ of śruti-s is clearly evidenced
by their fusion with the twentytwo śruti-s of the invariable
vīṇā brought about by the process of fourfold string move-
ment. The retrograde movement²⁷ may not be carried
beyond this²⁸, as that would mar the beauty.²⁹ (21c-22).
(i) Though it is possible to fix 22 strings on vīṇā, yet it is diffi-
cult to do so; and it is even more difficult to establish the
different notes on them by tonal consonance.
(ii) It has been suggested that the first string should be fixed so
as to produce the lowest possible sound. This is, at best, a
vague direction.
(iii) Taking it for granted that the lowest sound as suggested
refers to the pitch below which sound does not produce any
resonance and thus ceases to be musical, the problem yet is
how to fix the second string in order to sound a little bit
higher than the lowest and so on. That, he says, is to be
determined by ensuring that continuity in-between the two
is maintained and any intervening sound is eliminated or
disallowed to intrude. This leads to the question whether
it is practicable not to listen to the intervening pitch-points
or musical microtones. Obviously such subtle musical
sounds are discernible by trained ears. Therefore, the
procedure suggested by the author does not seem to be
satisfactory.
Moreover, the statement that, "the sound produced by them (the
22 strings fixed by the above procedure) is known as śruti", is technically
unsound, for śruti-s that are also called microtones, are very narrow
pitch-relations, perceived by trained ears with great difficulty; they
cannot thus be determined so easily by fixing the strings a little bit
higher successively since it does not involve a definitely measured pitch.
(10c-13b)
While Pt. Omkarnath Thakur suggests his own procedure for
demonstrating 22 śruti-s (cf. Praṇavabhāratī, pp. 65-66), Dr. K. C. D.
Brihaspati suggests quite a different interpretation of the text which
enables him to steer clear of some of the difficulties mentioned above
26. The iyattā of the text has the sense of numerical extent.
27. Apakarṣa is the lowering of the notes in pitch.
28: This refers to the fourth movement.
29. Rakti of the text literally means delightfulness which is beauty.

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Section 3 : Nāda, Śruti and Svara
(cf. Saṅgītacintāmaṇi, pp. 191, 192) the purport of which is presented
as under :
(i) The procedure of the fourfold string movement described
above is a preliminary exercise to fix the strings approximately
in order to establish the seven notes later on the basis of the
consonance of notes without much difficulty.
(ii) Śārṅgadeva has adapted this procedure from Mataṅga for the
above purpose. The above contention is demonstrated to be
true by the second line of the verse 13 (Vīṇādvaye svarāḥ
sthāpyāstatra ṣaḍjaścatuḥśrutiḥ). He clearly states that the notes
have (yet) to be established on the two strings.
(iii) He has used the word śruti in its primary meaning of an
audible sound, and not in the technical sense, for otherwise
he ought to have named the śruti-s there and then thus rende-
ring the fourfold string movement and the process of establi-
shing the notes unnecessary.
Moreover he elsewhere points out that in keeping with the spirit
of the age, Śārṅgadeva has purposefully clothed his expression in the
blanket of ambiguity. This is how the subject matter has been dealt
with by the modern scholars.
The śruti-s when specifically grouped, manifest the seven notes of
the scale. Incidentally, the Indian theory of music does not take the
octave into account as a general rule. We may have the occasion to
reflect upon the thinking that has been done regarding the relationship
obtained between svara (i. e., a note) and śruti. It may also be worth-
while to point out that the concept of svara is not at once identical with
the concept of note, though generally the term is rendered into English
as 'note' or 'tone' according to the context. The essential difference
that can at once be pointed out between 'svara' and 'note' is that,
whereas the pitch of the notes is fixed, that of svara-s is not absolutely
fixed, though it remains invariably the same in relation to the other of
the scale. An Indian performer is free to fixe his fundamental note
according to his own convenience. This goes to make all the difference.
Another important difference is that svara can roughly be said to signify
'duration in pitch' rather than a point. This factor will be further
clarified as we proceed with the text. However in English the words
'note' and 'tone' are used with some inexplicable discrimination in this
translation.
For the time being, suffice it to say that, a number of śruti-s in
successive combination go to bring a tone into being. Now, the author
concerns himself with establishing the seven notes of the scale on the

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126 Treatment of Svara
strings fixed on the two vīṇā-s. Ṣaḍja is to be established on the fourth
śruti as counted from the last śruti of the preceding note, i. e., niṣāda of
the lower scale; and since the first string here is taken as the lowest
possible sound, ṣaḍja is fixed on the fourth string. Similarly ṛṣabha is
established on the third śruti taking the last śruti of the previous note as
the zero point. Thus ṛṣabha is fixed on the third string as counted from the
fifth (i. e., the seventh string). Similarly, other tones are also established
on their respective strings. (13c-17a)
Having once established the seven notes in the two vīṇā-s at the
śruti intervals of 4, 4 + 3, 7+2, 9+4, 13+4, 17+3 and 20+2, i. e., 4, 7,
9, 13, 17, 20 and 22, now the author proceeds to demonstrate the fact of
these minutely preceptible intervals that go to manifest the seven
standard notes, being twentytwo in number. One of the vīṇā-s is kept
invariable to serve as the unmodified standard for evaluating the modifi-
cations brought about by the string-movements. Four of such string
movements go into action in this process which is technically known as
'catuḥ-sāraṇā', i. e., the fourfold string-movement. This has been
described in the text extending from verses 17 to 22.
The vīṇā in which the fourfold string-movement takes place is
cala vīṇā (lit movable) in the text, while the one which serves as
the invariable standard is called acala-vīṇā (lit. immovable). Both of them,
it may be pointed out, have twentytwo strings and are identical in every
respect. Such vīṇā-s, however, are used here for experimental purposes
only, and are not otherwise used for any performance. (17b-d)
The fourfold string-movement has already been referred to. In
this verse the author elucidates the significance of the string-movement.
Although the whole picture will only be clear after going through the
whole process, i. e., upto the 22nd verse, it is worthwhile to understand
what is meant by 'movement'.
The seven notes of the scale have been established on definite
strings on the two vīṇā-s; now, the notes of the variable vīṇā, in the first
movement, are shifted to the strings immediately preceding their res-
pective original strings; i. e., in other words, the movement implies the
lowering of the notes in pitch by one śruti-interval. Similarly in the
second movement the notes would be lowered by two śruti-intervals, in
the third by three śruti-intervals and in the fourth by four śruti-intervals.
Consequences of this fourfold string-movements are described in the
next few verses of the text.
In the first movement, however, no note-interval is proved; for, at
least two śruti-s are required to constitute the shortest of the note-
intervals; but, nevertheless, the lowering of the pitch of the notes is

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Section 3 ; Nāda, Śruti and Svara
noticeable, directly as well as by reference to their standard pitch
preserved by the invariable vīṇā. Thus, this arrangement of two
vīṇā-s provides for a negative as well as a positive proof with regards to
the number of śruti-s, which is twentytwo. (18-19b)
Each string-movement implies lowering of notes (i. e., all the
seven notes) by one śruti progressively, i. e., by one śruti in the first
movement, two śruti-s in the second movement, three śruti-s in the
third movement and four śruti-s in the fourth movement. But, since
the fundamental note has no fixed pitch in this system, the lowering of
the notes, allround as it is, does not affect the individuality of the notes
as such; for, the śruti-intervals between the various notes remain the
same. However, the impact of the string-movement in the variable vīṇā
is to be studied with reference to the standard pitch of the notes set up
by the invariable vīṇā. This is illustrated graphically by the following
chart (adopted with modifications from Saṅgīta-Cintāmaṇi of Dr. K. C. D.
Brihaspati and Mrs. Sumitra Kumari).
The fourfold string-movement
Serial No.
of strings 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Notes of
• acala-vīṇā sa ri ga ma pa dha ni
1st step in
† cala-vīṇā sa ri ga ma pa dha ni
2nd step in
cala-vīṇā sa ri ga ma pa dha ni
3rd step in
cala-vīṇā sa ri ga ma pa dha ni
4th step in
cala-vīṇā ri ga ma pa dha ni
(Chart 3)
• Invariable vīṇā
† Variable vīṇā
The effect of the fourfold string-movement on the position of notes
with reference to the invariable vīṇā and the extent to which that goes
to demonstrate the number of śruti-s is represented briefly in the follow-
ing chart:

Page 128

128 Treatment of Svara
The effect of fourfold string-movement

No. of note-strings | 4 | 7 | 9 | 13 | 17 | 20 | 22 | No. of śruti-s demonstrated | Remarks

The original position of notes on the scale sa ri ga ma pa dha ni —
1st movement No effect on the notes
2nd movement ga ni 4 ga and ni merge with ri and dha
3rd movement ri dha +6 ri and dha merge with sa and pa
4th movement ma pa sa +12 ma, pa and sa merge with ga, ma and ni

(Chart 4)
Thus, it is contended that, since by this method the number of
śruti-s that could be fixed with and that constitute the seven notes of
the scale is found to be twentytwo only, it is evident that śruti-s are
twentytwo The purpose of this demonstration is to verify and thereby
to confirm the number of śruti-s, i. e., twentytwo. The validity of this
process offering rough evidence to prove the number of the śruti-s lies in
the fact that in the second movement the notes ga and ni are fused with,
i. e , sound similar to, the notes ri and dha, thereby proving that the
note-intervals ri-ga and dha-ni are of two śruti-s each. Similarly, the
śruti-s of other notes are also verified as shown in the above chart, esta-
blishing in consequence the number of śruti-s as twentytwo.
The merger of ga and ni with ri and dha in the second movement
and of ri and dha with sa and pa in the third is quite intelligible. But
in the fourth movement sa, ma and pa fuse with ni, ga and ma : the
merger of ma and pa with ga and ma is also understandable; but the
question is how does sa merge with ni, since the string for sa was tuned
to produce the lowest possible tone that could be audible ? The ques-
tion as posed by ‘K’ is quite natural and if the formula for the string-
movement is strictly followed, the fourth movement cannot be practically
demonstrated on a vīṇā of twentytwo strings; firstly, because there is no
other string preceding the first one on which sa is placed in the third
movement; and secondly, there is no lower tone possible. ‘K’ meets
this objection by suggesting that if the lower octave (used for the saptaka)

Page 129

Section 3 : Nāda, Śruti and Svara 129
here is repeated, the string for ni can be conceived as the one preceding
the string for sa; or alternatively, the sa can be conceived to have merg-
ed with the ni of a still lower octave. However, the difficulty is not with
the technique of the demonstration and only points out the limitation of
the equipment.
Kumbha of the 15th century who has elaborated upon Śārṅgadeva
informs us about the functions of the fourfold string-movement as under:
“The delimitation of the number of śruti-s, gradation of pitch with
reference to tones and the comprehension of kākalī etc. (constitute)
the functions of the string-movements.” (S. Raj. II. 1.1.115). (19c-21b)
The net result of the fourfold string-movement is that the number of
śruti-s has been verified and demonstrated to be twentytwo only. ‘K’
raises a hypothetical question which is adequately answered by Śārṅga-
deva in verse 22. One can well say, “If 22 śruti-s could be obtained by
four string-movements, why not carry out the fifth movement and fix the
number of śruti-s at twentynine ?” It is as if in anticipation of such a
question that, according to ‘K’, the author found it necessary to forbid
any further movement; for that would defile the aesthetic value of notes.
Dwelling on this theme, ‘K’ further explains that a fifth string-move-
ment cannot possibly be conceived, for the note-intervals are finite and
are constituted by different numbers of śruti-s such as 2, 3 and 4, making
them resonant, delightful and pleasing tones. Thus, the three categories
of notes with 2, 3 and 4 śruti-s each have been fused in three different
movements leaving no scope for any further lowering of pitch. ‘S’ too
points out that a svara (note) is defined to be pleasing by itself and
therefore, if another movement is carried out, that would disturb
the constitution of individual notes which would consequently destroy
their essential quality of being pleasing by themselves. Incidentally, it
is the scale of ṣaḍja-grāma which is the basis of calculations here; and
in this scale the biggest śruti-interval is that of 4 śruti-s. (21c-22)
9

130 Treatment of Svara
ग. स्वरः
(i) सप्त स्वराः
श्रुतिभ्यः स्युः स्वराः षड्जर्षभगान्धारमध्यमाः ।
पञ्चमो धैवतश्चाथ निषाद इति सप्त ते ॥२३॥
तेषां संज्ञाः सरिगमपधनीत्यपरा मताः ।
C. Svara and its different aspects
(i) Seven svara-s (tones) : 23-24b
From out of the śruti-s¹ arise the svara-s²; these are
seven, viz., ṣaḍja, ṛṣabha, gāndhāra, madhyama, pañcama, dhaivata,
This verse is quite important as it reflects the views of Śārṅgadeva
regarding the relationship of śruti and svara; and that is why the English
version has been rendered as close to the original text as possible, even
though it has necessitated an unusual construction.
‘Śruti-s give rise to the svara-s’, is a cryptic statement which affords
enough scope for different interpretations. But before discussing these,
it will be better to be clear about its obvious implications. As already
pointed out, the svara-s arise out of śruti-s in the groups of two, three
and four, but essentially in groups. As far as the śuddha svara-s, i. e., the
standard notes of the ṣaḍja-grāma (to be explained later) are concerned,
twentytwo śruti-s in the groups of four, three and two go to constitute
seven notes called sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, and ni.
Now, how do śruti-s give rise to svara-s and actually what relation-
ship obtains between them? ‘K’ discusses this question thoroughly
and presents the following possible interpretations :
(i) Since svara as well as śruti have the sense of hearing as the
means of perception, in the absence of any perceptual
distinction, there is no categorical difference between the
two; which, therefore, stand in the relationship of the
general and the particular (i. e , in other words, they are
essentially identical).

1. From out of śruti-s, in the groups of four, three and two as
   already mentioned.
2. In other words, śruti-s in different combinations bring different
   svara-s into being. The verbal form ‘syuḥ’ is suggestive of a
   natural occurrence,
   Section 3 : Nāda, Śruti and Svara 131
   and niṣāda. Their another accepted nomenclature³ is ‘sa-ri-
   ga-ma-pa-dha-ni’. (23-24b)
   ( ii) Like the reflection of the face in the mirror, the svara-s are
   projected by the śruti-s, and present the relationship of
   appearance and Reality.
   (iii) Just as a ball of mud is said to be the material cause of an
   earthen pot made out of it, so also śruti-s form the material
   out of which svara-s are shaped. Thus, in this view, śruti and
   svara stand in the relationship of a material cause and effect.
   (iv ) As milk gets transformed into curd, so also the śruti-s are
   transformed into svara-s.
   ( v ) Just as a lamp manifests by its light the objects already exis-
   ting in darkness, so also the svara-s are manifested by
   the śruti-s.
   These views may be critically examined as under:
   ( i ) The first view does not hold good; for svara and śruti are
   two different concepts related in the spirit of the supporter
   and the supported, and cannot as such be identical. More-
   over, śruti and svara cannot be related as the general and
   the particular merely on account of the non-distinction in
   the mode of their perception, for ‘non-distinction’ cannot
   logically be confused with universality.
   ( ii) The second view is still less plausible, for if the svara-s are
   taken to be mere appearance with reference to śruti-s, they
   have no reality of their own, which is not the case in prac-
   tice. The svara-s are no less real than the śruti-s.
   (iii) It is contended by this view that śruti and svara are related
   as cause and effect. Though, svara follows śruti in the
   sequence of time, yet śruti cannot be considered to be the
   material cause of svara in the same way as a clod of mud
   can be said to be the material cause of the pot etc, because
   after the pot has come into being, the mud is no longer
   available to us apart from the pot. But, this does not hold
   good in this case; for, it will be untrue to say that apart
   from the svara, the śruti-s constituting the svara are not avai-
   lable. Since they are so available, the śruti-s cannot be
   taken as the material cause of the svara-s.
3. This is constituted in principle by the first letters of the full
   names and these names accordingly are their diminutive
   forms or abbreviated symbols.

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132 Treatment of Svara
(iv) The fourth and the fifth views, being free of any such fault
and having been supported by Mataṅga etc., are acceptable.
In fact it is Mataṅga who was first to discuss this topic in such
detail and 'K' has only reproduced his views in his own words.
Mataṅga summarises the above five views in the following verse, though
he also discusses them in detail :
"With respect to śruti-s five views are generally held, viz., identity,
reflection, causation, transformation and manifestation" (Bṛhaddeśī 31).
Mataṅga points out the faults of the first three views, which are
reproduced by 'K' and supports the last two views in general. But then
finally he comes out in favour of the 'manifestation theory', as he says :
"By perception, inference and circumstantial evidence the śruti-s
may be accepted as factors manifesting the svara-s" (Bṛhaddeśī 53).
Thus, Mataṅga considers śruti-s to be the factors manifesting the
svara-s, and Śārṅgadeva thinks that śruti-s give rise to the svara-s. It is
obvious that both are saying the same thing in two different ways. The
śruti-s, with respect to the svara-s, may therefore be taken to be the
factors that in different combinations give rise to different svara-s, consti-
tute them for a while, and so manifest them or make them perceptible.
As pointed out by 'K', Mataṅga has elucidated the significance of
the names of the notes, which is represented briefly as under :
(i) Ṣaḍja—is so called because :
(a) it is the precursor (lit. the progenitor) of the six other
notes, or
(b) it is brought into being by six other notes for, as an
integrated part of the heptad (saptaka) it is manifested
by the rest of the parts together.
(c) alternatively, it is produced by six organs of the body,
viz., the nostrils, the throat, the palate, the breast, the
tongue and the teeth.
(ii) Ṛṣabha—is so called because it quickly appeals to (lit. arrives
at) the heart, or as among the herd of cows a bull appears
to be distinctly strong so also in the group of notes ṛṣabha is
strong and noticeable. It may be added that the first
derivation is based on the word ṛṣabha as grammatically
derived from the root 'ṛṣ' to go; while the second is based
on the literal meaning of the word, viz., bull which is taken
as a symbol of strength. Alternatively, that which sounds
(i e., bellows) like a bull is ṛṣabha.

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Section 3 : Nāda, Śruti and Svara
(iii) Gāndhāra—is so called because it holds musical speech.
This interpretation is based on the grammatical derivation
of the word gāndhāra, "gāṁ dhārayate-iti-gāndhāra". Alter-
natively, it is so called because it delights gandharva-s,
the semi divine beings associated with music.
(iv) Madhyama—is so called because it is in the centre of the
seven notes having three on either side. This derivation is
based on the literal meaning of the word madhyama, which
means belonging to the centre. 'K' also gives two other
alternatives which seem to be far-fetched.
(v) Pañcama—is that which measures the extent of other notes;
or it is so called because it is fifth from the fundamental
note. The first view presents a grammatical derivation
jointly from two roots, 'pac'—to extend and 'mi'—to measure.
How it measures the extent of other notes will be made
clear subsequently in the context of pramāṇa śruti (in the
appendix). According to another interpretation, Pañcama
is so called because it is produced from the fifth place.
(vi) Dhaivata—is so called because being brought about by the
śruti-s of the 'posterior tone' it is to be discerned by sensi-
tive minds. The expression 'posterior tone' representing
the original 'uttarasvara' is a technical one. The musical
scale is divided into two parts with madhyama in the centre
and a group of three notes on either side of it. The notes
of the first triad are called pūrvasvara-s, i. e., the 'anterior
tones' and those of the other following triad are called
uttara-svara-s 'posterior tones', and both the triads are
respectively called pūrvāṅga and uttarāṅga, i. e., the anterior
section and the posterior section of the heptad (saptaka).
(vii) Niṣāda—is so called because the notes of the scale come to
a close with it. The word is derived from the Sanskrit root
'ni+ṣad' to come to a rest. Obviously, niṣāda is the last
note of the heptad (saptaka).

: 134 Treatment of Svara
(ii) स्वरलक्षणम्
श्रुत्यनन्तरभावी यः स्निग्धोऽनुरणनात्मकः ॥२४॥
स्वतो रञ्जयति श्रोतृचित्तं स स्वर उच्यते ।
(ii) The definition of svara (tone):
Immediately consequent upon śruti¹, creamy² and
Now the svara is being defined. By the way, the essential difference
between śruti and svara is also implied in this definition. When a string
of the vīṇā is plucked, the very first sound produced is considered to be
śruti and the very next sound following it, which is the resounding of the
śruti is called svara. In other words, whereas śruti is essentially free from
resonance, resonance is the essential characteristic of svara.
The other two essential characteristic features of 'svara' are softness
and self-sustained delightfulness.
There is a slight difference of opinion with regards to the inter-
pretation of this definition of svara; 'K' thinks that since the author has
already established the notes on the vīṇā and defined their śruti-
intervals, here in this context the word śruti means the fourth śruti etc.,
which when manifested resounds subsequently into ṣaḍja etc. In other
words, by śruti is meant that particular śruti which is capable of resound-
ing into a note and which is technically called svarasthāna, i. e., the seat
of a note. However, it is notable that 'S' thinks that the sound produced
by the first string (of the 22-stringed vīṇā) which is devoid of resonance
is called śruti while the subsequent resounding sound is called svara.
It is interesting to compare this verse as translated by M. S.
Ramaswami Aiyar in his edition of the Svaramelakalānidhi as it is borrow-
ed verbatim by Rāmāmātya. He renders it as under:

1. The expression "śruti-anantara-bhāvī" is specifically important
   for it is designed to stress on the one hand the characteristic
   difference between the concepts of śruti and svara, and on the
   other hand, their specific relation as well. Svara, in other
   words is a developed śruti Since śruti here signifies the sound
   produced by striking a vibrating string in the first instant
   which is conspicuous by being free from resonance, svara
   signifies that very sound when it gathers vibrations of
   resonance and thereby becomes sonorous.
2. Snigdha is defined as that (sound) which is soft and is also
   capable of being heard at a distance. Actually the literal
   meaning of the word is 'viscous' and is applied as such to
   liquids only; but here it is used figuratively. In this sense, it
   is a quality of musical sound. The opposite of snigdha is rūkṣa,
   i. e., rough or dry.
   Section 3 : Nāda, Śruti and Svara
   resonating³, the sound⁴ that delights the listeners' minds by
   itself⁵ is called svara⁶. (24c-25b)
   "That is called svara, which is by itself pleasing to the ear and the
   mind; which permeates the śruti-s; and which is tender and
   harmonic."
   It will be noticed that he renders the expression "śrutyanantarabhāvī"
   as "which permeates the śruti-s". Apart from the value of this render-
   ing from a translator's point of view, what is remarkable is the implied
   relationship of svara and śruti in this expression. That svara permeates
   the śruti-s means that, svara-s are involved in śruti-s.
3. Anuraṇana (anu+raṇana lit. the 'post-sound' from raṇ to sound,
   to ring, to tinkle etc.) technically signifies the sound-vibra-
   tions of a string that are produced and that ordinarily follow
   the sound produced in it (by striking) in the very first instance,
   which is called raṇana and is devoid of resonance. The term
   resonance (from resound, to echo, to ring, to go on sounding)
   is generally associated with the resounding of sympathetic
   strings or bodies other than that in which the original sound
   is produced; but anuraṇana differs from this concept in so far
   as it denotes resounding of the sound produced in the same
   vibrating string or body. However, for want of a better word
   it has been rendered as resonance.
4. The pronoun yaḥ is used in the text for it.
5. This is the most important and distinguishing feature of svara,
   viz., that it should have the quality of delighting the mind of
   the listeners by itself, i. e., without the need for any other
   accompaniment or help. 'S' points out that this quality is
   related to the quality of softness attributed to svara.
6. It is notable that, whereas Mataṅga derives the word svara
   from the root rājṛ—to shine, to appear, prefixing sva to it,
   Śārṅgadeva derives it from the root rañj—to delight. Both of
   these derivations are semantic explanations and do not have
   the precision of a grammatical authority. Even so, the diffe-
   rence of approach is significant. Śārṅgadeva seems to have
   been under the influence of Abhinavagupta in his interpreta-
   tion, who stresses the element of resonance (anuraṇana) as the
   most distinguishing feature of the essential nature of svara
   (tone) in contrast with that of śruti, which he says is devoid of
   it. Accordingly, the beauty of a tone depends on the ratio of
   unresonating and resonating sound present in its production.
   Thus every tone has two elements, the unresonating and the
   resonating; if the former is greater in ratio the tone quality is
   the lowest, if both are equal it is medium and if the latter is
   greater it is the best (cf N. S., G O. S. Vol. IV, p. 13).
   This line of thinking emphasises the element of delightful-
   ness that essentially characterises the svara, and this is attribut-
   ed mainly to the element of resonance in it. It is not therefore
   surprising to find Śārṅgadeva defining svara as that which is
   delightful by itself.

136 Treatment of Svara
(iii) श्रुतीनां स्वरकारणत्वम्
ननु श्रुतिश्चातुर्थ्यादिस्त्वेवं स्वरकारणम् ॥२५॥
त्र्यादीनां तत्र पूर्वासाम् श्रुतीनां हेतुता कथम् ।
ब्रूमश्चतुर्थ्यादीत्याऽऽदिः श्रुतिः पूर्वाऽभिकाङ्क्षया ॥२६॥
निर्धार्यतेऽतः श्रुतयः पूर्वा अप्यत्र हेतवः ।
(iii) Discussion regarding śruti-s causing the svara: 25c-27b
Well indeed, if such śruti-s as the fourth etc.¹, are
admitted to be the cause of the svara-s, how can the other
śruti-s such as the third etc.², be considered as their cause ?
(25c-26b).
We shall presently explain it. Such a śruti, whether
fourth or third etc.³, is determined only with reference to the
preceding śruti-s⁴; therefore, they too constitute the cause of
the svara-s. (26c-27b)
Now it has been established in principle that from out of śruti-s
arise the svara-s, and therefore, śruti-s are conceived as the antecedent
cause of the svara-s. Whatever be the difference of opinion with respect
to the actual relationship between svara and śruti, there is no denying
the fact that all the śruti-s go to bring about the svara-s. At the same
time it is also asserted that since svara is that sound which immediately
follows the śruti in the order of its resonance, it is the fourth, the third
and the second śruti respectively of the three groups of four, three and
two, that goes to produce the svara. If that be so, then the question is,
"On what basis can the other śruti-s such as the third, the second and
the first respectively of the groups of four, three and two be considered
as constituting the cause of the svara-s ?"
The answer is as obvious as the question is clear. The fourth or
third or the second śruti can be so called only if it is preceded by three
śruti-s, two śruti-s and one śruti respectively, and not otherwise. Thus
all the śruti-s of a svara are responsible for its manifestation.

1. 'Fourth etc' of the text refers to column 4 of the above chart
   while by 'etc', Nos. 2 and 3 of the same column are included.
2. 'Third etc' of the text refers to column 5 of the above chart,
   while by etc.' Nos. 2 and 3 of the same column are included.
3. As explained in note 1 above.
4. All those enumerated in columns 5 and 6 of the above chart.
   The śruti-groups as related to the different svara-s are indicated in
   the following chart :
   śruti-groups and the svara-s (notes)
   | S. No. | śruti-group | svara-s | note-position in terms of śruti (in the svara) | note-position in terms of śruti (in the scale) | immediately antecedent śruti (in the svara) | immediately antecedent śruti (in the scale) | other antecedent śruti-s (of the svara) | other antecedent śruti-s (of the svara & the scale) |
   | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
   | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 6 |
   | 1 | 4-śruti interval | ṣaḍja | 4th | 4th | 3rd | 3rd | 2nd & 1st | 2nd & 1st |
   | | | madhyama | " | 13th | " | 12th | " | 11th & 10th |
   | | | pañcama | " | 17th | " | 16th | " | 15th & 14th |
   | 2 | 3-śruti interval | ṛṣabha | 3rd | 7th | 2nd | 6th | 1st | 5th |
   | | | dhaivata | " | 20th | " | 19th | " | 18th |
   | 3 | 2-śruti interval | gāndhāra | 2nd | 9th | 1st | 8th | — | — |
   | | | niṣāda | " | 22th | " | 21th | — | — |
   (Chart 5)
   (iv) पञ्चजातिषु सप्तस्वरेषु च सनाम श्रुति-विभाजनम्
   दीप्ताऽऽयता च करुणा मृदुर्मध्येति जातयः ॥२७॥
   श्रुतीनां पञ्च तासां च स्वरेष्वेवं व्यवस्थितिः ।
   दीप्ताऽऽयता मृदुर्मध्या षड्जे स्यादृषभे पुनः ॥२८॥
   संस्थिता करुणा मध्या मृदुर्गान्धारके पुनः ।
   दीप्ताऽऽयते मध्यमे ते मृदुमध्ये च संस्थिते ॥२९॥
   मृदुर्मध्याऽऽयताऽऽख्या च करुणा पञ्चमे स्थिता ।
   करुणा चायता मध्या धैवते सप्तमे पुनः ॥३०॥
   दीप्ता मध्येति तासां च जातीनां ब्रूमहे भिदाः ।
   तीव्रा रौद्री वज्रिकोक्तेत्युक्ता दीप्ता चतुर्विधा ॥३१॥
   कुमुद्वत्यायता याऽस्याः क्रोधा चाथ प्रसारिणी ।
   संदीपनी रोहिणी च भेदाः पञ्चेति कीर्तिताः ॥३२॥
   दयावती तथाऽऽलापिन्यथ प्रोक्ता मदन्तिका ।
   त्रयस्ते करुणाभेदा मृदोर्भेदचतुष्टयम् ॥३३॥

138 Treatment of Svara
मन्दा च रतिका प्रीतिः क्षितिर्मध्या तु षड्विधा ।
छन्दोवती रञ्जनी च मार्जनी रक्तिका तथा ॥३४॥
रम्या च क्षोभिणीत्यासामथ ब्रूमः स्वरस्थितिम् ।
तीव्राकुमुद्वतीमन्दाच्छन्दोवत्यस्तु षड्जगाः ॥३५॥
दयावती रञ्जनी च रक्तिका चर्षभे स्थिताः ।
रौद्री क्रोधा च गान्धारे वज्रिकाऽथ प्रसारिणी ॥३६॥
प्रीतिश्च मार्जनीत्येताः श्रुतयो मध्यमाश्रिताः ।
क्षिती रक्ता च संदीपन्यालापिन्यपि पञ्चमे ॥३७॥
मदन्ती रोहिणी रम्येत्येतास्तिस्रस्तु धैवते ।
उग्रा च क्षोभिणीति द्वे निषादे वसतः श्रुती ॥३८॥
(iv) The allocation of śruti-s as characterised by their classes
and names among the svara-s : 27c-38.
There are five classess¹ of śruti-s, viz., dīptā, āyatā,
karuṇā, mṛdu and madhyā; their standing among the svara-s is
stated to be as under (27c-28b)
Dīptā, āyatā, and madhyā are found in ṣaḍja; karuṇā,
and mṛdu find a place in ṛṣabha; dīptā and āyatā are located
in gāndhāra and also in madhyama along with mṛdu and madhyā;
mṛdu, madhyā, āyatā and karuṇā are placed in pañcama, and
karuṇā, āyatā and madhyā in dhaivata; while dīptā and madhyā
are in niṣāda. (28c-31a)
Now, we shall speak of the subdivisions of these classes :
Dīptā is said to be fourfold viz., tīvrā, raudrī, vajrikā and ugrā;
āyatā is known to have five varieties viz., kumudvatī krodhā,
prasāriṇī, sandīpanī and rohiṇī; karuṇā is said to be threefold,
viz., dayāvatī, ālapinī and madantikā; mṛdu is fourfold, viz.,
mandā, ratikā,² prīti and kṣiti; while madhyā is sixfold, viz.,
chandovatī, rañjanī, mārjanī, raktikā, ramyā and kṣobhiṇī. (31b-35a)
And now we shall point out their position among the
svara-s :
Tīvrā, kumudvatī, mandā and chandovatī pertain to ṣaḍja;
dayāvatī, rañjanī and raktikā are related to ṛṣabha; raudrī and
krodhā are in gāndhāra; vajrikā, prasāriṇī, prīti and mārjanī abide
by madhyama; kṣiti, raktā, sandīpanī and ālāpinī are in pañcama;
the three madantī, rohiṇī and ramyā in dhaivata and the two
śruti-s, ugrā and kṣobhiṇī dwell in niṣāda. (35b-38)
Twentytwo śruti-s have been distinguished into five classes. The
basis of this classification has not been made explicit in the text, nor
have the commentators found it necessary to elucidate it. However,
it seems that the different classes of śruti-s have something to do with
the relationship of notes and the rasa-s or the aesthetic colours attributed
to them in the ancient theory of Indian music. This is implied in their
nomenclature and elucidated as under :
(i) Dīptā, 'dazzling'; literally, illumined,
(ii) Āyatā, 'vast'; literally, extended,
(iii) Mṛdu, 'tender'; literally, soft,
(iv) Madhyā, 'moderate'; literally, medium or central, and
(v) Karuṇā, 'compassion'.
The names signify tonal sequence in melodic development and are
representative of emotional colour; this aspect would be more clear with
the further classification of the classes, as it follows.
The distribution of śruti-classes among the different notes is illus-
trated in the following chart (No. 6), which at once elucidates the rela-
tionship of a particular note with the different śruti-classes and also the
relationship of a particular śruti-class to different notes. The numbers
in the squares indicate the position of a particular śruti in the group of
śruti-s constituting a particular note.
śruti-classes and svaras

2. It is notable that raktikā is not mentioned in the verses 35 b-38.
   However raktā which does not appear here is mentioned.

140 Treatment of Svara
The five śruti-classes are further subdivided each having quite a few
varieties. That means, each śruti belongs to a class which implies a
class attribute common to all the śruti-s of the class and that class
comprehends a few varieties implying special traits along with the class
character. This specific character seems to be the association of a
particular class-śruti with particular notes. For example, dīptā is asso-
ciated with four notes and is said to be of four varieties, āyatā is asso-
ciated with five notes and has five varieties and so on, as it is illustrated
in the following chart (No. 7).
The chart illustrates the subdivisions of the śruti-classes, represent-
ing their class characters as distributed among the svara-s, indicating
thereby their specific traits. The names in the squares pertain to the
class subdivisions. The number alongside indicates the position of the
śruti in the śruti-structure of the svara. The chart illustrates the subject
matter of verse Nos. 35b-38 as well.
Subdivisions of śruti-classes distributed among the svara-s
Svara or note / śruti class names signifying general characters
signifying specific / dīptā | āyatā | mṛdu | madhyā | karuṇā
Ṣaḍja tīvrā-1 kumudvatī-2 mandā-3 chandovatī-4
Ṛṣabha raktikā-3 rañjanī-2 dayāvatī-1
Gāndhāra raudrī-1 krodhā-2
Madhyama vajrikā-1 prasāriṇī-2 prīti-3 mārjanī-4
Pañcama sandīpanī-3 kṣiti-1 raktā-2 ālāpinī-4
Dhaivata rohiṇī-2 ramyā-3 madantī-1
Niṣāda ugrā-1 kṣobhiṇī-2
(Chart 7)
(31b-35a)
Chart No. 7 graphically illustrates the position of these particular
śruti-s in the different note-intervals. The names of these śruti-s are
suggestive of their aesthetical value as related to their tonal quality.
Contemplating upon the value or the purpose of classification of śruti-s
briefly, ‘S’ suggests that they are perhaps designed to arouse the feelings
or the affections implied by their names. This hypothesis is quite
plausible and the whole scheme of this śruti-classification needs to be
scientifically investigated. (35 b-38)
Section 3 : Nāda, śruti and svara
(v) स्वराणां स्थानत्रयम्
ते मन्द्रमध्यताराख्यस्थानभेदात्त्रिधा मताः ।
(v) Three sthāna-s (registers) of svara-s : (39ab)
These (svara-s) are considered as threefold according to
the different registers known as mandra, madhya and tāra, i. e.,
low, medium and high. (39ab)
Having dealt with the śruti-s, the śruti-classes and the develop-
ment of notes out of them, the author now proceeds to demonstrate the
differentiation and the classification of notes.
In the first instance the notes are classified according to their
sthāna i. e., the place of perceptible effort for voice-production in the
human organism. It has already been pointed out by the author (verse 7
ante) that nāda manifests itself in three places, viz., in the region of the
heart, throat and the cerebrum. These are the three sthāna-s from
which notes are produced. Corresponding to these three, the notes
are classified in three registers or to speak loosely, three octaves, viz.,
mandra, madhya and tāra. Mandra represents what is known as chest-
voice, madhya is throat-voice and tāra is the high (head).
(vi) द्वादश विकृतस्वराः
त एव विकृतावस्था द्वादश प्रतिपादिताः ॥ ३९॥
च्युतोऽच्युतो द्विधा षड्जो द्विश्रुतिविकृतो भवेत् ।
साधारणे काकलीत्वे निषादस्य च दृश्यते ॥४०॥
(vi) Twelve modified notes : 39c-46b
These notes, in their modified form, are established as
twelve. (39cd)
Ṣaḍja, modified by two śruti-s in two different ways is
(called) lowered ṣaḍja¹ and unmoved² ṣaḍja respectively by the

1. Cyuta literally means sub-standard, fallen or lowered in pitch.
2. Acyuta is steadfast, standard and unmoved.

142 Treatment of Svara
साधारणे श्रुतिं षाड्जीमृषभः संश्रितो यदा ।
चतुःश्रुतित्वमायाति तदैको विकृतो भवेत् ॥४१॥
साधारणे त्रिश्रुतिः स्यादन्तरत्वे चतुःश्रुतिः ।
गान्धार इति तद्‌भेदौ द्वौ निःशङ्केन कीर्तितौ ॥४२॥
मध्यमः षड्जवद् द्वेधाऽन्तरसाधारणाश्रयात् ।
पञ्चमो मध्यमग्रामे त्रिश्रुतिः कैशिके पुनः ॥४३॥
मध्यमस्य श्रुतिं प्राप्य चतुःश्रुतिरिति द्विधा ।
धैवतो मध्यमग्रामे विकृतः स्याच्चतुःश्रुतिः ॥४४॥
कैशिके काकलीत्वे च निषादस्त्रिचतुःश्रुतिः ।
प्राप्नोति विकृतौ भेदौ द्वाविति द्वादश स्मृताः ॥४५॥
ते शुद्धैः सप्तभिः सार्धं भवन्त्येकोनविंशतिः ।
process of sādhāraṇa³ (overlapping) and the 'kākalisation'⁴ of
niṣāda. (40)
When, in the process of ṣaḍja-sādhāraṇa⁵ (the overlapping
of ṣaḍja), ṛṣabha absorbs one śruti of ṣaḍja, it attains the
Though the notes in their original form are found to be seven only,
it is said that in actual usage when their standard pitch is modified
either by augmenting it or by lowering it, they are known to be twelve
in all. The modified notes or the vikṛta svara-s are discussed in the
following few verses. (39cd)
The modification of notes is dealt with from verse 40 to 45 and
in this space the author explains how the modified notes are formed and
why they number twelve.
Ṣaḍja is modified to the extent of two śruti-s in two different ways,
viz. (i) by losing its note-śruti (i. e., 4th) to the advantage of ṛṣabha and
its initial śruti (i. e. 1st) towards niṣāda, and (ii) by yielding its first two
śruti-s to niṣāda. The first process is called cyuta-ṣaḍja-sādhāraṇa (the
overlapping of lowered ṣaḍja) and affects the position of the note-śruti
of ṣaḍja which is technically called cyuta-ṣaḍja (lowered ṣaḍja), and the
second process is known as the kākalītva of niṣāda, by which niṣāda gains
3. Sādhāraṇa refers to ṣaḍja-sādhāraṇa.
4. When niṣāda is augmented by gaining two śruti-s of ṣaḍja, it is
transformed into kākalī-niṣāda and this transformation of niṣāda is
technically named as "the kākalisation of niṣāda."
5. In the text only sādhāraṇa is mentioned, but it is the ṣaḍja-
sādhāraṇa that is intended; it has been made explicit to avoid confusion
in the English version.
interval⁶ of four śruti-s, and that is its only modified form.
(41ab)
Gāndhāra assumes two modified forms as enunciated by
Śāraṅgadeva⁷ viz., with three śruti-s in the process of
madhyama⁸-sādhāraṇa (the overlapping of madhyama) and with
four śruti-s in the case of antaragāndhāra.⁹ (41c-42b)
the two initial śruti-s of ṣaḍja leaving its note-śruti quite unaffected. The
second process is, therefore, associated with acyuta ṣaḍja, i.e., unlowered
or unmoved ṣaḍja. This subject matter is dealt with in detail in Section
5 of this chapter. It may, however, be noted that the modified ṣaḍja
has only two śruti-s viz., the second and the third, and the third and
the fourth respectively of the original four.
'S' raises an interesting question. In the case of unmoved ṣaḍja,
ṣaḍja retains its śruti-note intact while yielding two initial śruti-s to
niṣāda; therefore, its pitch remains unaffected, how then can its tone be
called modified? As it is obvious and also explained by 'S', normally
ṣaḍja is at the distance of four-śruti-interval from niṣāda which in its
modified state is reduced to that of two-śruti-interval. Now, since the
tonal value of the notes is essentially relative in this system, the reduction
in the extension of ṣaḍja is adequately felt. Thus, even though the
pitch remains the same, the duration and the tonal content is modi-
fied. (40)
In the process of the overlapping of ṣaḍja, its first śruti is gained by
the preceding niṣāda and its fourth śruti is attached by ṛṣabha, the
extent of which is extended thereby to four-śruti-interval; and this is the
only modification undergone by ṛṣabha. Ṛṣabha is thus composed of the
śruti-s numbering 4th to 7th from the first of ṣaḍja.
Just as ṣaḍja is modified in two forms viz., by the overlapping of
ṣaḍja and the 'kākalisation' of niṣāda, so also madhyama is modified in
6. Catuḥ-śrutitva consists in having the note-interval of four śruti-s.
7. Niḥśaṅka of the text literally means 'free from doubts' and is
an epithet of Śārṅgadeva.
8. Only sādhāraṇa is spoken of in the text but, obviously madhyama-
sādhāraṇa is applicable here, and so it has been made explicit.
9. Antaratva consists in gāndhāra gaining two initial śruti-s of
madhyama which by itself remains of two-śruti-measure only. Thus, by
this action, gāndhāra gains a medial (antara) position between standard
gāndhāra and madhyama, and is therefore called antara-gāndhāra, i e.
medial gāndhāra. Antaratva, therefore, signifies the 'medial position'
of gāndhāra.

144 Treatment of Svara
Madhyama, like ṣaḍja is (modified) in two ways viz., by
taking resort to the process of 'antara' and that of sādhāraṇa'.
(42cd).
Pañcama is of three śruti-measure in the madhyama-grāma,
while in the madhyama-sādhrāaṇa¹⁰ (the overlappng of
madhyama), gaining one śruti from madhyama it extends to
four śruti-s; and is thus modified in two ways. (42-44b)
Dhaivata of madhyama-grāma is modified to be of four
śruti- interval. Niṣāda is modified in two ways viz., in its kaiśika
and kākalī forms having three and four śruti-s respectively.
And so they make twelve modified forms, which along with
the seven standard¹¹ notes become nineteen in all. (44c-46b).
two ways viz. (i) by yielding one śruti to gāndhāra and one to pañcama,
an example of cyuta (lowered)-madhyama, and (ii) by affording its two
initial śruti-s to gāndhāra, an example of acyuta (unmoved)-madhyama.
The former mode is called madhyama-sādhāraṇa (the overlapping of
madhyama) and the latter is known as antara-sādhāraṇa.
Thus, when gāndhāra is modified by the overlapping of madhyama,
it gains its initial śruti and is thereby constituted of three śruti-s viz.,
the 8th, 9th and 10th; and when it is modified by the medial position of
gāndhāra (antaratva) it appropriates two initial śruti-s of madhyama to
itself and the number of its śruti-s swells to four, viz, 8th to 11th. This
latter gāndhāra of four śruti-s is called antara gāndhāra. Thus gāndhāra
has two modified forms, viz., sādhāraṇa (i.e., the one consequent upon
madhyama-sādhāraṇa) and antara (i e., antara-gāndhāra) constituted respec-
tively by śruti-s numbering 8th to 10th and 8th to 11th from the first of
ṣaḍja. (41-42b)
In the modification of gāndhāra, the two processes of the overlap-
ping of madhyama and the medial position of gāndhāra have been explain-
ed with reference to gāndhāra. Now, we have to consider them from
the point of view of madhyama.
Madhyama is constituted by the śruti-s numbering 10 to 13 in the
unmodified series. By the process of overlapping ma lends 10th śruti to
10. Kaiśika is another name for sādhāraṇa.
11. The word śuddha has to be interpreted with reference to the
word vikṛta. Vikṛta, simply means modified and therefore śuddha would
mean unmodified. But since that is a negative expression and the
general tenure of the term śuddha is rather positive, it seems it would
be better to render it as 'standard'.
SECTION ...
ga and 13th śruti to pa and retains 11th and 12th śruti-s itself. In the
process of the medial movement (antaratva) of gāndhāra ma yields 10th
and 11th śruti-s to ga, and retains only 12th and 13th śruti-s. So, these
are the two modified forms of madhyama, constituted respectively of
11th, and 12th, and 12th and 13th śruti-s. (42cd)
There is an obvious similarity between the modifications of ṣaḍja
and madhyama as previously pointed out. With respect to the grāma-s,
we are going to be informed adequately in the next Section of this chap-
ter. For the present, it may be understood roughly that a grāma signi-
fies a series of notes related in a certain order. Two such scales were
in practice. viz., ṣaḍja-grāma, having ṣaḍja as its prominent note and
madhyama-grāma, having madhyama as its prominent note. Pañcama is
established on the 17th śruti in ṣaḍja-grāma and on the 16th śruti in
madhyama-grāma. This is one way how the two grāma-s are distinguished
from each other; of course this also affects the relative position of other
notes which we shall see in due course.
Now, with this background we can follow the text. In the
madhyama grāma, pañcama comprises the 14th, 15th and the 16th śruti-s,
whereas in the ṣaḍja grāma, it also has the 17th śruti which is consider-
ed to be the note-śruti; and therefore, the '16-śruti' pañcama is one of the
modifications of the standard pañcama. Another modification occurs by
the process of the overlapping of madhyama (i e madhyama-sādhāraṇa),
when it gives up 13th śruti which is absorbed by the pañcama of
madhyama grāma. The standard form of the pañcama of madhyama-grāma
comprises of three śruti-s only, and when it gains one śruti from
madhyama its extent widens to four śruti-s, i. e., 13th to 16th, and this
constitutes another modification of pañcama. (42c-44b)
While pañcama is established on the 16th śruti in madhyama-grāma,
the 17th śruti which is the note-śruti of pañcama in ṣaḍja-grāma is released
and absorbed by dhaivata, which consequently comprises the śruti-s
numbering 17 to 20 i.e., four in contrast with the standard three viz.
18 to 20 of the ṣaḍja-grāma. Thus, this is the only modification of
dhaivata.
Kaiśika is another name for sādhāraṇa Kaiśika-niṣāda which is a
product of the overlapping of ṣaḍja when it yields its initial śruti to
niṣāda, swelling it to three śruti-s in extent viz., 21st and 22nd and 1st.
Similarly, niṣāda is transformed into kākalī-niṣāda when it gains two
initial śruti-s of ṣaḍja and comprises 21st, 22nd and 1st and 2nd śruti-s.
Thus niṣāda has two modified forms respectively known as kaiśika-niṣāda
and kākalī-niṣāda.
The twelve modified notes as related to the standard (śuddha) notes
can be studied at a glance from the following chart :
10

146 Treatment of Svara
Modified notes as related to standard notes in terms of śruti-s

1. Cātaka is a bird of poetic convention. It is held that this
   bird takes only rain-water. Kunhan Raja's note in this
   respect is quite interesting and is reproduced verbatim:
   "Cātaka is a mythological bird supposed to have holes in the
   neck, and as such, unable to drink water in the ordinary
   way; they drink water remaining with their breast upwards
   when rain falls, so that the water does not leak out through
   the holes."
2. K. R. renders it as 'ram'.
3. Heptad is used as an equivalent of Sanskrit saptaka, which is
   conceived in place of the octave.

148 Treatment of Svara
He also relates certain psychological states of mind, aesthetic
moods with the notes and the animals as reproduced in the following
table. The rasa-s or the aesthetic moods are in theory attributed to
various notes by our author as well.
Notes as related to the birds and animals and the rasa-s

1. Vadī, literally means speaker i. e., the note that frequently sounds.
2. Saṁvadī, literally means the corresponding note, the note that converses in tune with the sonant, with the vadī.
3. Vivadī, literally means the opponent, the disputant i e., the note of discord
4. Anuvadī, literally means that which sounds afterwards, which follows i.e., the note that supports the sonant.
   Section 3 : Nada, Śruti and Svara 149
   श्रुतयो द्वादशाष्टौ वा ययोरन्तरगोचराः ॥४८॥
   मिथः संवादिनौ तौ स्तो निगावम्यविवादिनौ ।
   रिधयोरेव वा स्यातां तौ तयोर्वा रिधावपि ॥४९॥
   शेषाणामनुवादित्वं वादी राजाऽत्र गीयते ।
   संवादी त्वनुसारित्वादमात्योऽभिधीयते ॥५०॥
   विवादी विपरी तत्वाद्धीरैरुक्तो रिपूपमः ।
   performance is most frequently used. The notes having an
   interval of eight or twelve śruti-s are mutually consonant.
   Ni and ga are dissonant to all other notes, or to ri and dha
   only, or ri and dha too are their dissonants. The rest of the
   notes are related as assonants. (47c-50a)
   The sonant among them⁵ is considered to be the ruler,
   while the consonant, being in concert with it, is called the
   minister; the dissonant being antagonistic is likened by the
   sages to an enemy, the assonant⁶, however, since it follows
   the king as well as the ministers, is like a servant. (50b-51)
   speaker. The name itself is suggestive of its function viz., the one that
   sounds frequently, and thereby establishes the melodic pattern of rāga.
   Generally, the sonant is also the fundamental note (the tonic), specially
   in the jati and grama-rāga-s.
   'K' defines saṁvādī i.e., consonant as the note which, in conso-
   nance with the sonant, creates the quality of delightfulness in a rāga (a
   melodic structure) and helps to maintain it. 'S' raises the point that,
   whereas Śārṅgadeva has spoken of eight or twelve śruti-intervals being
   the necessary condition for consonance of notes, Mataṅga and Dattila
   have mentioned nine or thirteen śruti-s as constituting the required inter-
   val. Now, in order to answer this question as well as to grasp the whole
   concept of consonance of notes, it is necessary to examine the statements
   of Mataṅga and Dattila. Mataṅga says :
   "The notes placed at the interval of nine or thirteen śruti-s are
   mutually consonant" (as quoted by 'S').
5. That is, the four types of notes viz., the sonant, the consonant, the assonant and the dissonant.
6. The assonant is like a servant, in so far as it has no other func-
   tion except to strengthen the leading note in concordance with
   the consonance; it has no individuality of its own.

150 Treatment of Svara
It is important to note that Mataṅga lays down the condition of
the notes being of identical śruti-measure, in addition to the required
note-interval of nine or thirteen śruti-s. Following Mataṅga, Abhinav-
gupta elaborates the concept of samaśrutikatā (identity of śruti-measure)
of a tone with reference to the last śruti of the preceding tone. Thus
Bharata has enumerated the following pairs of consonant notes in the
ṣaḍja-grāma : sa-ma, sa-pa, ri-dha and ga-ni based on 9 and 13 śruti-
intervals. What is notable is that he has not included the pair of ma-ni
which implies a 9 śruti-interval. This is so because ma and ni being at a
distance of 4 and 2 śrutis from the last śruti-s of their respective preceding
notes are not identical in their śruti-measure. Thus the phenomenon of
svara-saṁvāda which is inaccurately identified as the consonance of notes,
is not only an acoustical but also a melodic phenomenon. In the former
case it signifies the relation of svara-s in terms of the śruti-interval obtain-
ing in-between them and in the latter case it refers to the identity of śruti-
measure constituting them. The melodic effect of this aspect of svara-
saṁvāda is amply demonstrated by reciprocal triads formed by the con-
sonance of notes as defined above. For example, Brihaspati points out that
in case of ma-ni, which has been excluded by Bharata from the consonant
pairs, 'ma-ga-ri' cannot be reciprocated by ni as 'ni-dha-pa', the reciprocal
triad would be 'sa-ni-dha' and not 'ni-dha-pa'. Hence ma-ni have not been
spoken of as having saṁvāda" (cf. I.M.J. No. 7, p. 60 and P.L.S.: I.M.J.
Nos. 11-12, p. 57).
Incidentally the minute difference between the concept of conso-
nance in western music and saṁvāda of Indian music is also made clear
through the concept of samaśrutikatā.
Furthermore, as 'S' explains, Mataṅga includes the note-śruti of
the note with which consonance is established in the number of śruti-s
forming the interval, whereas Śārṅgadeva excludes it; that is why
Śārṅgadeva speaks of eight and twelve śruti-interval and (Bharata),
Mataṅga and Dattila add one more to state as nine and thirteen-śruti-
interval. For example, take the consonance of sa-pa. The note-śruti
of sa is 4th and that of pa is 17th; and if, while measuring this interval,
one counts from 4th (including it) to 16th it would make for a thirteen-
śruti interval but if the 4th is excluded, then it would make for a
twelve-śruti interval. The consonance of notes is reflected in the
following chart :
Section 3 : Nāda, Śruti and Svara 151
Sonants and consonants

152 Treatment of Svara
he says "Notes extending to two śruti-s are dissonants". The function
of dissonants is defined by Mataṅga and elucidated by 'S' to the
purport that the notes that can only disturb and destroy the melodic
structure of a rāga, established in the configuration of the fundamental
note (tonic), the assonant and the consonant notes put together, are
dissonant. Again this yardstick has to be applied through the principle
of substitution i. e., if ga is substituted for ri or vice versa, then the
mode and the melodic pattern of the composition are disturbed, and
consequently there is loss of aesthetic effect.
The notes that are not mutually related either as consonants or as
dissonants are considered to be assonants. 'S' quotes Mataṅga who says
that notes short of one śruti interval are assonants. Thus, for example
he says, if ṛṣabha is used for ṣaḍja, dhaivata for pañcama, ṛṣabha for
pañcama, or dhaivata for ṣaḍja or vice versa, the mode of the melodic
pattern is not adversely affected. 'S' adds ṛṣabha for madhyama, and
dhaivata for madhyama and vice versa in this line.
But what is the function of assonants? Anuvādī literally means
that which sounds after (the dominant) i.e., the note that follows or
supports the sonant. Mataṅga also lays down that "the function of the
assonant is to fortify and strengthen the sprit of the melodic pattern
established by the sonant." (47c—50a)
The relationship of the four classes or functions of the notes is illus-
trated by a metaphor. Just as it is the king who commands in consulta-
tion with his minister, so also does the sonant function in close coordi-
nation with the consonant, and yet enjoys the supremacy of the king.
The assonants are so many servants working for the sonant and the
consonant, strengthening them; and the dissonant is like the enemy of
the whole team. (50b—51)
(ix) स्वराणां कुल-जाति-वर्ण-दैवतर्षि-च्छन्दोरस कथनम्
गीर्वाणकुलसंभूताः षड्जगान्धारमध्यमाः ।
पञ्चमः पितृवंशोत्थो रिधावृषिकुलोद्भवौ ॥५२॥
(ix) Lineage, caste, colour, continent, sage, deity, metre
and rasa (aesthetic delight) of the svara-s : 52-60b
Ṣaḍja, gāndhāra and madhyama are of divine origin¹,
pañcama has arisen from the lineage of manes, ṛṣabha and

1. Gīrvāṇakula, literally means the house of gods', or in fact, the
   con ept 'kula' is akin to the concept of cominune; thus the
   expression implies that sa, ma and pa are descended from the
   community of gods.
   Section 3 : Nāda, Śruti and Svara 153
   निषादोऽसुरवंशोत्थो ब्राह्मणाः समपञ्चमाः ।
   रिधौ तु क्षत्रियौ ज्ञेयौ वैश्यजाती निगौ मतौ ॥५३॥
   शूद्रावन्तरकाकल्यौ स्वरौ वर्णास्त्विमे क्रमात् ।
   पद्माभः पिञ्जरः स्वर्णवर्णः कुन्दप्रभोऽसितः ॥५४॥
   पीतः कर्बुर इत्येषां जन्मभूमिरथ ब्रुवे ।
   जम्बूशाककुशक्रौञ्च शाल्मलीश्वेतनामसु ॥५५॥
   द्वीपेषु पुष्करे चैते जाताः षड्जादयः क्रमात् ।
   वह्निवेधाः शशाङ्कश्च लक्ष्मीकान्तश्च नारदः ॥५६॥
   ऋषयो ददृशुः पञ्च षड्जादींस्तुम्बुरुर्धनी ।
   वह्निब्रह्मासरस्वत्यः शर्वश्रीशगणेश्वराः ॥५७॥
   सहस्रांशुरिति प्रोक्ताः क्रमात्षड्जादिदेवताः ।
   क्रमादनुष्टुब्गायत्री त्रिष्टुप् च बृहती ततः ॥५८॥
   पङ्क्तिरुष्णिक् च जगतीत्याहुश्छन्दांसि सादिषु ।
   सरी वीरेऽद्भुते रौद्रे धो बीभत्से भयानके ॥५९॥
   कार्यौ गनी तु करुणे हास्यशृङ्गारयोर्मपौ ।
   dhaivata are the progeny of the ṛṣi-s² (sages), while niṣāda has
   sprung from the demonic ancestry. (52-53a)
   Ṣaḍja, madhyama and pañcama are brahmins³, ṛṣabha and
   dhaivata are known as belonging to the princely class⁴, niṣāda
   We have already come across two classifications of notes; here are
   a few others on quite different grounds. The basis for these classifica-
   tions, as it will be seen, is peculiarly historical and cultural; and there-
2. Ṛṣi is usually translated as 'seer' or a sage; that being true,
   in this context a ṛṣi is the recipient of the vision of the mantra-s
   (i. e vedic hymns).
   3 Brahmin is the superior-most caste among the caste Hindus
   who comprise brāhmaṇas, kṣatriya-s and vaiśya-s, roughly con-
   forming to the three classes of Plato's ideal society viz., the
   philosophers, the rulers and warriors, traders and ploughmen.
   The fourth caste of śūdra comprises slaves and servants of
   lower class. Actually, the caste system of the Hindus is based
   on the four functional divisions of the human body viz., the
   head, the arms, the stomach and the feet.
3. Kṣatriya, literally means the warrior (class).

154 Treatment of Svara
and gāndhāra are considered to be in the merchant class⁵,
while the notes antara-gāndhāra and kākali-niṣāda are of the
servant class.⁶ (53b-54a)
Their respective colours are red⁷, pale yellow⁸, golden
yellow, sparkling white⁹, black, plain yellow and variegated.
(54b-55a)
Then I am to describe the lands¹⁰ of their origin.
The notes ṣaḍja etc., are respectively born in the continents
of Jambu, Śāka, Kuśa, Krauñca, Śālmali, Śveta and Puṣkara.
(55b-56b)
fore, peculiarly Indian in orientation. Moreover, it is not always possi-
ble to trace the historical-cum-mythological background in which the
classification and its nomenclature were significantly employed. For
example, one can hardly say anything about the classification of notes
based on their origin from the gods, manes, sages and demons, but one
can guess with obvious justification with respect to the other classifica-
tion based on caste. Incidentally these attributes go to project the
individual images of the notes lending them a personality.
Ṣaḍja, madhyama and pañcama have four śruti-s each, ṛṣabha and
dhaivata have three, niṣāda and gāndhāra have two; so obviously they
have been evaluated according to their śruti-value and assigned the
best, the middle and the lower position among the society of svara-s
(notes). However, antara and kākali are treated as outcastes since
they are not employed as the fundamental notes, and are therefore,
degraded from the position of full-fledged svaratva (i.e. the capacity, to
be an independent musical note). (52—54a)
There is a state of consciousness arrived at through yogic process in
which colour and sound appear in a unified perception. The notes have
been assigned particular colours here. These colours may be related to
the particular aesthetic effects subsequently attributed to the notes or
5. Vaiśya-s include traders, farmers, industrialists and the produ-
cers of every type.
6. Śūdra-s are those who are not free citizens, who are in the
service of other individuals etc.
7. Padmābha is interpreted by 'S' as red; literally it means
'shining like a lotus' as rendered by 'K. R.'. However, we do
have a red lotus and therefore, the interpretation of 'S' may
be taken to be authentic.
8. Piñjara is defined by 'S' as slightly yellow or yellowish.
9. Kunda is a flower and 'K. R.' identifies it with jasmine. 'S'
interprets it as brilliant and white.
10. Places of birth.
Section 3 : Nāda, Śruti and Svara 155
The ṛṣi-s¹¹ (sages) who discovered the first five¹² notes
commencing with ṣaḍja etc., respectively are Vahni¹³,
Brahmā¹⁴, Śaśāṅka¹⁵, Lakṣmīkānta¹⁶ and Nārada¹⁷,
while dhaivata and niṣāda were discovered by Tumburu.¹⁸
(56-57b)
they may even be objective facts that are subjectively perceived; but
nothing can authentically be said about it, since even the commentators
do not refer to the basis for this tradition. They seem to take these
things as a matter of course.
The world was divided into seven dvīpa-s according to the puranic
geography which is mixed up with mythology. A dvīpa is considered to
be an independent mass of land separated from the other dvīpa-s by an
ocean. Thus corresponding to the seven dvīpa-s seven oceans are also
conceived. These days, the concept of 'dvīpa' is taken as corresponding
to that of 'continent', though in technical details it is not necessarily
so. (54b—56b)
It will be observed that with respect to every note, or in other
words, regarding all the seven notes, certain characteristics are described
here, such as, the familyline, the colour, the continent of origin, the
seer, the presiding deity, metre and the aesthetic effect. To a critical
mind, this scheme is open to searching questions regarding the signifi-
cance of these individual characteristics as attributed to the different
notes. However, only a few general suggestions can be offered here
with a view to provide a certain perspective in which the true signifi-
cance of the scheme may be discovered.
11. Ṛṣi-s are considered to be the seers who have an immediate
perception of Truth or a fact.
12. That is, ṣaḍja, ṛṣabha gāndhāra, madhyama and pañcama.
13. Vahni, literally means fire and alludes to Agni, the god of fire.
14. Vedhas of the text refers to the creative aspect of the Divinity,
i. e. Brahmā.
15. Śaśāṅka refers to the 'moon'.
16. Lakṣmīkānta refers to Viṣṇu along with his consort Lakṣmī.
17. Nārada is not only a mythological figure, but also one of the
authorities in the tradition of the musical arts as mentioned
in the beginning of the text (cf. S. Raj, Vol. I, p. 667 for an
exhaustive note).
18. Tumburu is similarly another authority sanctified by musical
tradition. Thus Tumburu, like Nārada is a historical persona-
lity. He is described as an expert in divine music Vāyu-
purāṇa 69.47-49, a gandharva disciple of Nārada (Bhāgavata-
purāṇa, I.13.37-59). Tumburu is obviously associated with
Nārada in the Purāṇa-s.

Page 156

156 Treatment of Svara
The presiding deities of ṣaḍja etc., respectively are
Vahni, Brahmā, Sarasvatī¹⁹, Śiva²⁰, Viṣṇu²¹, Gaṇeśa²² and
the Sun²³, and the metres associated with them seriatim are
anuṣṭup, gāyatrī, triṣṭup, bṛhatī, paṅkti, uṣṇik and jagatī. (57c-59b)
In the vedic tradition, every vedic hymn, i.e., sūkta is endowed
with a seer, a presiding deity, a metre and so on; and it seems that the
present characterisation of notes in the above terms is an extension of
this tradition as applied to music. How far its application to music is
useful, practical and valid is a question of a detailed and a deeper
investigation.
Another obvious fact, as already hinted in this regard is that, all
these characteristics go to raise an individual image of each note. One
might well find the beginnings of the later rāga imagery in the Indian
music developing visual images of tonal structures expressed in line and
colour in their rudiments.
'S' has observed this phenomenon from quite a different angle
which is interesting and thought-provoking. He says that the allocation
of the musical notes to seven different continents as the places of their
origin and the association of seven seers etc. as well points out the fact
that the notes were admitted to be seven only, and not nine, including,
for example, the kākalī-niṣāda and the antara-gāndhāra. Thus, he raises
the question, "why indeed the notes are considered to be seven as a
rule ?", and suggests the following explanation : The number seven as
associated with the musical notes is based probably on the concept of
seven supportive tissues (spoken of in the Āyurveda) of the body such as
19. Terms such as Vahni and Brahmā have already been explained.
Sarasvatī is conceived as the goddess of learning, art and
literature in the puranic symbology.
20, 21. Śiva symbolises that aspect of the Hindu trinity which is
responsible for the dissolution of the creation and Viṣṇu is
the deity responsible for the state of the being in creation, i. e.
sthiti (sustenance).
22. Gaṇeśa, in the puranic mythology, is the son of Lord Śiva
and a god to be propitiated at the commencement of every
religious rite, ceremony or any new social or economic under-
taking.
23. The Sun, though grammatically correct, is yet a misleading
expression, for the presiding deity called Sun, is not inert
like the sun, but is the essence of the consciousness embodied
by it
The following notes (24-31) are prepared on the basis
of the glossary of technical words, appended to Ravi Shankar's
"My Music My Life".

Page 157

Section . . .
Ṣaḍja and ṛṣabha are employed in the expression of
heroism²⁴, wonder²⁵ and wrath²⁶; similarly, dhaivata is used
for abhorrence²⁷ and terror²⁸, gāndhāra and niṣāda for
skin, blood, flesh, etc., or on the concept of the seven psycho-physical
centres in the body, or as related to the seven continents. Kākalī-niṣāda
and antara-gāndhāra are not taken as notes independently as they are not
used as the dominant (tonic) notes. This is supported by a quotation
from Dattila to this effect (cf verses 16 and 17).
It is notable that while all other ṛṣi-s from Vahni to Nārada are
more or less mythological, perhaps with the exception of Nārada who is
semi-historical, Tumburu is a historical personality and a gandharva i.e.,
a musician. He is said to have discovered dhaivata and niṣāda (cf. a
discussion on the concept of gāndharva by Sadagopan-Prem Lata-
Brahaspati in the Indian Music Journal, Oct.-Nov. 1967), where it is
said by Brahaspati that dhaivata was discovered by him as an overtone
of madhyama. It seems that the discovery of dhaivata and niṣāda attribut-
ed to him is historical. (56c-57)
The concept of devatā or the presiding deity is once again vedic
in origin. It symbolises in concrete terms the abstract idea of a certain
classification of human consciousness of that particular age, which was
partly functional and objective in its comprehension of the creation and
partly subjective, being conditioned by the time-space of the age. For
example, the group of sun-gods headed by Savitṛ symbolise not only the
sun, but in fact the brilliance that characterises the sun and the stars
alike. Thus the discovery of the modern astronomy that the stars are
as many and more or less powerful suns, is no revelation to those who
are acquainted with the vedic symbolism. The Vedas have comprehend-
ed the truth of it in their own terms.
It is difficult to relate the application and the extension of this
symbolism to the musical notes, as it has already been said, but if any
significance has to be discovered, vedic symbolism must provide the
key.
24. Vīra is expressive of dignity, majesty and glory, courage and
heroism.
25. Adbhuta is expressive of wonderment, amazement, surprise,
exhilaration, and also the mixed feelings of anticipation.
26. Raudra depicts anger or excited fury.
27. Bībhatsa conveys the sentiment of hate, hostility and disgust
which is usually made explicit in dramas.
28. Bhayānaka represents the sensation of fear, fright and awe.
However, it is difficult to express this in music or a solo-
instrument.

pathos²⁹, and madhyama and pañcama for mirth³⁰ and con-
jugal love.³¹ (59c-60b)
Similarly, the particular metres that have been associated with the
notes are also vedic with the exception of anuṣṭup which was introduced
into the classical Sanskrit as well. This confirms the view that this
characterisation of the tones is a form of the extension of vedic symbo-
lism in the field of musical arts. In this context the value of its appli-
cation to music needs to be assessed for proper appreciation and under-
standing.
In this respect ‘S’ informs that these particulars are used in the
worship of the tones when ṣaḍja etc., are invoked by the seed-syllables
spoken of by Mataṅga. In this invocation specially the seer (ṛṣi),
the presiding deity (i. e. devatā) and the metre are utilised. ‘S’ gives a
long quotation from Mataṅga, referring to the seed syllables of notes,
which need not be reproduced here. This reflects the influence of Tantra
on the already existing tradition of vedic origin. (57c-59b)
It is said that music is a universal language : perhaps it is so
because it gives expression to the content of the heart without inter-
ference of thought, and therefore, appeals directly to the heart. Music,
as understood in the context of saṅgīta was primarily considered to be
an accessory art to dramatics and therefore, specific compositions such
as particular grāma-rāga-s etc., were employed in the depiction of parti-
cular sentiments, such as heroism, conjugal love, pathos and so on.
Thus the theory of rasa or aesthetic delight propounded for explaining
the phenomenon of literary and dramatical enjoyment was later applied
to music, even while it was taken to be an art by itself. That is how
various rāga-s are associated with various states of mind leading to the
enjoyment of various emotions. In this background the capacity of
different tones for producing or arousing particular mental states is
further analysed here.
This analysis of the character of tones with reference to their
capacity to express more effectively particular sentiments seems not
only to be historical and traditional, but also objective and scientific in
29. Karuṇa is sad, pathetic, tragic and expresses loneliness, longing
and yearning for the absent lover or God.
30. Hāsya is humorous and comic, happy and joyful and produ-
cing laughter.
31. Śṛṅgāra represents the universal creative force and embodies
romantic and erotic feelings, of love between man and woman,
the longing for the absent lover, and sensitivity to the beauty
of nature.
principle. Cf. Bharata XIX. 38, 39 (K. ed.) as the basis for Śārṅgadeva
to associate particular notes with particular rasa-s. However, svara in
this context refers to the tonic i. e., the first tone of the mūrcchanā and
implies the mūrcchanā based on it. So in fact the rasa or the aesthetic
delight associated with a particular tone is capable of being produced
not by an isolated tone but by the mūrcchanā commenced by that tone.
This view is supported by the implication of Bharata in the context of
rasa as associated with jātis (N. S. XXIX. 12 K. ed.)
Rasa is generally rendered as aesthetic delight, but that does not
elucidate the concept adequately. Rasa is that delight which is distin-
guished from pleasure, from sensation and sensual enjoyment in so far
as it is to be derived from a state of mind free from the limitations of
personal likes and dislikes. Rasa is the delight of a consciousness in
which emotion is experienced as a universal affection. Rasa is not only
contemplation but also a direct experience of beauty and love. The
concept of rasa is well elucidated as ‘brahmānanda-sahodara’, that is,
‘delight approximating to universal love’.
The association of rasa or an aesthetic mode with the individual
notes may not be directly an extension of the vedic tradition, but
certainly the concept is derived from mārga-saṅgīta i. e., ancient music,
and is therefore, an indirect extension of the vedic tradition. It is
worthwhile to remember that the Sāma veda is, according to some, the
source of musical arts.
Another point worthy of notice is that, quite in keeping with the
tradition of dramaturgy, only eight of the nine rasa-s of the literary
theory have been admitted as the basic aesthetic moods in music.
Śānta i e., ‘serenity’ is excluded as being impracticable for the purposes
of demonstration. (59c-60b)