सङ्गीतरत्नाकर: प्रथम भाग (शार्ङ्गदेव - स्वरगताध्याय सविस्तार व्याख्या व अनुवाद सहित)

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( 1 )
C. The characteristic features of the particular
jati-s ... 59c-109
(i) Ṣaḍjī ... 60-64b
(ii) Ārṣabhī ... 64c-66
(iii) Gāndhārī ... 67-70b
(iv) Madhyamā ... 70c-72
(v) Pañcamī ... 73-75b
(vi) Dhaivatī ... 75c-77b
(vii) Naiṣādī ... 77c-78
(viii) Ṣaḍjakaiśikī ... 79-80
(ix) Ṣaḍjodīcyavā ... 81-85b
(x) Ṣaḍjamadhyamā ... 85c-88b
(xi) Gāndhārodīcyavā ... 88c-91b
(xii) Raktagāndhārī ... 91c-94
(xiii) Kaiśikī ... 95-98
(xiv) Madhyamodīcyavā ... 99-100
(xv) Karmāravī ... 101-103b
(xvi) Gāndhārapañcamī ... 103c-105b
(xvii) Āndhrī ... 105c-107b
(xviii) Nandayantī ... 107c-109
D. Concluding Remarks ... 110-115b
(i) General remarks-with regard to jati-s ... 110-113b
(ii) The esoteric value and nature of jati-gāna ... 113c-115b
Section 8 : Gīti-s ... 1-25
(i) The Kapāla and the Kambala songs ... 1-14b
(a) The kapāla-gāna ... (1-10)

1. Ṣaḍjī-kapāla ... (2-3b)
2. Ārṣabhī-kapāla ... (3c-4b)
3. Gāndhārī-kapāla ... (4c-5)
4. Madhyamā-kapāla ... (6)
5. Pañcamī-kapāla ... (7)
6. Dhaivatī-kapāla ... (8)
7. Naiṣādī-kapāla ... (9)
8. The value of kapāla-gāna ... (10)
   (b) The kambala-gāna ... (11-13)
   (c) The verbal text of the kapāla
   songs ... (14ab)
   (ii) The definition and classification of gīti-s ... 14c-25
9. Māgadhī ... (16c-18b)
10. Ardhamāgadhī ... (18c-19b)
11. Sambhāvitā ... (19cd)
12. Pṛthulā ... (20ab)
13. Gīti-s based on tāla ... (20c-25)

Right Page: Chapter 1

Chapter 1
THE TREATMENT OF SVARA
प्रथमः स्वरगताध्यायः
तत्रादिमं पदार्थसंग्रहाख्यं प्रकरणम्
मङ्गलाचरणम्
ब्रह्मग्रन्थिजमारुतानुगतिना चित्तेन हृत्पङ्कजे
सूरीणामनु रञ्जकः श्रुतिपदं योऽयं स्वयं राजते ।
यस्माद् ग्रामविभागवर्णरचनाऽलङ्कारजातिक्रमो
वन्दे नादतनुं तमुद्धुरजगद्गीतं मुदे शङ्करम् ॥१॥
Section 1
Introductory
(i) Propitiation : 1
For delight¹ do I worship Lord Śiva² embodied in (the
form of) nāda³ pre-eminently adored by the entire world,
the source of order inherent in the division of domains⁴, the

1. The author is offering his prayers without any ulterior motive,
   i. e., for the very delight that accompanies the act of worship,
   and so his prayers are immediately answered.
   2 The word used is Śaṅkara, which is capable of double meaning,
   viz. the name of Lord Śiva, and etymologically, one who
   causes comfort or well-being.
2. Nāda is primordial sound, the manifest quality of the first of
   the five elements of creation, ākāśa (space) in its unmodified
   state.
3. The word grāma is capable of double meaning, viz. the diffe-
   rent loka-s (i. e., world-views) such as Bhūḥ, Bhuvaḥ, etc., and
   the three basic scales—ṣaḍja-grāma, madhyama-grāma and
   gāndhāra-grāma spoken of in ancient music.

2 Treatment of Svara
organisation of castes⁵ and the distinction of species⁶; who,
being manifest in the heart-lotus⁷ of yogins as oṅkāra⁸ in the
contemplation of mind united to the movement of prāṇa⁹
originating from the root¹⁰ of the navel, shines in its own
lustre.¹¹ (1).
Interpretation with reference to music:
I take pleasure in paying my homage to gītam¹², the
embodiment of nāda, the cause of comfort¹³ in the restless¹⁴
world, the source of the system comprising the division of
5. Varṇa implies the four castes, viz. Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya
and Śūdra in which the ancient Hindu society was divided;
and in the context of music it signifies types of tonal move-
ment, viz. sthāyī, ārohī, avarohī and sañcārī.
6. Various species of animal kingdom; in music the word (jāti)
stands for arche-types of rāgas, viz. ṣaḍjī, ārṣabhī, etc. The
word alaṅkāra is taken by 'K' in combination with jāti.
Accordingly, this word has been bracketed with 'species'
(jāti) in our translation of the text, in the context of Śiva.
The etymological meaning of the word is alaṁ-karoti-iti alaṅ-
kāraḥ, i. e., which delineates the optimum, such as that of
beauty etc. and is, therefore, also used in the sense of 'orna-
ment or embellishment. Here it has been interpreted in the
simple meaning of delineating the optimum of the species.
7. Hṛtpaṅkaja is the heart-lotus, the seat of anāhata-cakra of twelve
petals in the system of Kuṇḍalinī-Yoga.
8. Śrutipadam is the source of Vedas, i. e. oṅkāra and in music śruti
signifies a microtone.
9. Prāṇa is the vital breath spoken of as maruta (air) in the text;
and the movement of prāṇa is necessary for the articulation of
sound.
10. Brahmagranthi is the knot in which the psychic currents of iḍā
and piṅgalā join with the central canal of psychic energy, viz.
suṣumṇā, near about the root of the navel.
11. The supreme Being is self-luminous and cannot be enlightened
by any modification of the mind. This self-luminosity of
pure Being is suggestive, in the musical context, of the etymo-
logical meaning of svara.
12. Gītam (singing) also implies vādyam (instrumental music) and
nṛttam (dancing). As gītam is directly related to the process
of voice-production in the body, and also because it is consi-
dered to be the main organ of saṅgīta, it represents the entire
art of music.
13. The etymological meaning of the word Śaṅkara.
14. A free rendering of the word uddhura, meaning 'unrestrained.'

Section I : Introductory 3
grāma¹⁵, the composition of varṇa-s¹⁶, the alaṅkāra-s¹⁷ and
the jāti-s¹⁸, the self-manifest¹⁹ locus of śruti-s²⁰ that delights
the masters of music in the lower²¹ register, aided by the
mind attuned to the movement of prāṇa originating from the
root of the navel.
Comments :
It is customary, in the Indian tradition, to offer worship to one's
favourite god as a mark of auspiciousness and for the successful comple-
tion of the work being undertaken. Here, the author opens his maṅgalā-
caraṇa (a benedictory verse) with the word Brahman as a mark of
auspiciousness, and offers worship to Lord Śiva, his iṣṭadevatā (favourite
god) who, incidentally, is the presiding deity of Saṅgīta. The concept
of iṣṭadevatā is peculiar to Indian culture, and is akin to, and seems to
have its origin in, what is known as 'Henotheism' of the vedic pantheon.
There are various religions, dogmas and sects who have their own supreme
deity. The concept of iṣṭadevatā implies the understanding that, although
there is one God in the absolute sense, yet it is known and worshipped
in a particular form and under a particular name that is relevant to a
particular sect. It is also implied in the puranic mythology, to which this
concept truly belongs, that whatever be the description of the supreme
deity in a particular sect, the gods of other sects would be related to it
in some way or the other. Thus, every Hindu is free to have his own
supreme deity. Faith is, therefore, largely an individual affair. Different
members of a family can and do quite often have different iṣṭadevatā-s.
This concept seems to be supported by the Bhagavad-gītā where Lord
Kṛṣṇa declares :
"Whatsoever form (of the supreme deity) a devotee wishes to
worship earnestly, I strengthen his faith in that deity and make it
unflinching." (Bh. G. VII-21)
15. Grāma is a specific group of svara-s (tones), and three grāmas
are accepted, viz. ṣaḍja, madhyama and gāndhāra.
16. Varṇa is 'type of tonal movement', the act of singing, such as
sthāyī etc.
17. Alaṅkāra is a specific combination of svara-s.
18. Jāti is a virtual archetype of rāga, e.g. ṣaḍjī, ārṣabhī, etc.
19. Svayam rājate, suggests the etymological definition of svara,
i.e., the sound that is perceptible and delightful by itself.
20. Śruti signifies a perceptible constituent unit-factor of tone.
21. The heart is identified with the region of voice-production for
the lower register, which implies the other two here.

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4 Treatment of Svara
Incidentally this shows that, since the benedictory verse is offered
to Lord Śiva, Śārṅgadeva belongs to the Śaiva cult. This gives his
religious orientation, though as it would be clear in the subsequent
passages of the text, he seems to belong philosophically to the Bhedābheda
system of Vedānta Philosophy. It is in this context that the concept
of a personal God as iṣṭadevatā becomes all the more significant.
Apart from serving the purpose of maṅgalācaraṇa, this verse figura-
tively also points out the salient features or the main topics of the
subject matter of this chapter. The figure of speech employed is known
as samāsokti by which, such qualifying words are used that are capable
of double meaning and are so composed in a verse or a sentence as
briefly to indicate some other purport not directly implied by the pri-
mary meaning of the words (cf. Kāvyaprakāśa 10.97). Hence the verse
is differently interpreted above with reference to music.
(ii) ग्रन्थकृद्वंशवर्णनम्
अस्ति स्वस्तिगृहं वंशः श्रीमत्काश्मीरसंभवः ।
ऋषेर्वृषगणाज्जातः कीर्तिप्रक्षालितदिङ्मुखः ॥२॥
यज्वभिर्धर्मधीधुर्यैर्वेदसागरपारगैः ।
यो द्विजेन्द्रैरलंञ्चक्रे ब्रह्मभिर्भूर्गतैरिव ॥३॥
तत्राभूद्भास्करप्रख्यो भास्करस्तेजसां निधिः ।
अलङ्कर्तुं दक्षिणाशां यश्चक्रे दक्षिणाऽयनम् ॥४॥
तस्याभूत्तनयः प्रभूतविनयः श्रीसोढलः प्रौढधी-
र्येन श्रीकरणप्रवृद्धविभवं भूवल्लभं भिल्लमम् ।
आराध्याखिललोकशोकशमनी कीर्तिः समासादिता
जैत्रे जैत्रपदं न्यधायि महती श्रीसिंङ्घणे श्रीरपि ॥५॥
एकः क्ष्मावलये क्षितीश्वरमिलन्मौलीन्द्रनीलावलि-
प्रोदञ्चद्द्युतिचित्रिताङ्घ्रिनखरश्रेणिर्नृपालाग्रणीः ।
श्रीमत्सिङ्घणदेव एव विजयी यस्य प्रतापानलो
विश्वव्याप्यपि दन्दहीति हृदयान्येव द्विषामुद्गुरः ॥६॥

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Section I : Introductory 5
तं प्रसाद्य सुधीधुर्यो गुणिनां गुणरागिणम् ।
गुणग्रामेण यो विप्रानुपकारैरतीतृपत् ॥७॥
ददौ न किं न किं जज्ञौ न दधौ कां च सम्पदम् ।
कं धर्मं विदधौ नैष न बभौ कैर्गुणैरयम् ॥८॥
(ii) Author's lineage : 2-8
There¹ is a family line, an abode of beneficence,
founded by the sage Vṛṣagaṇa in the beautiful (valley of)
Kashmir, which has spread its fame in all the quarters of the
world through the descendant dignitaries representing
Brahmā² on the earth as it were, the best among the brahmins,
the masters of the vedic lore, the upholders of religious order
and the presiding priests of vedic sacrifices, who have
enriched its lineage. (2-3)
In that family was born a treasure-house³ of extraor-
dinary excellences bearing the name Bhāskara⁴ (lit. the sun)
who, with a view to grace the southern⁵ direction by his
presence, migrated to the south. (4)

1. 'S' informs that Vṛṣagaṇa is the name of a sage (i. e., ṛṣi) as
   well as a surname (i. e., gotra).
2. The creative aspect of pure being, one of the gods of the
   Hindu trinity Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva. The significance of
   this metaphor is brought out by the words bhū-deva and
   bhū-sura which are the synonyms of brāhmaṇa. The brahmins
   are accordingly considered to be the gods of earth, gods in
   the sense of beings of extraordinary religious spirit.
3. The receptacle of divine glory or spiritual pre-eminence result-
   ing from a sacred knowledge, as per one of the interpretations
   of 'S'.
4. That is, to mention one of the pioneers of the family line.
5. 'S' puts forward two other interesting interpretations, viz. i)
   'he set out in search of a generous patron', ii) 'he set out to
   answer the call, to meet the demand of the experts'. The word
   dakṣiṇa in Sanskrit has three different meanings, viz. right (as
   opposed to left) or south, efficient or clever, and favourable.
   The word is actually loaded with all the three connotations,
   as its meaning as 'right' is suggestive of his sectarian affilia-
   tions, since there are two paths dakṣiṇācāra and vāmācāra, the
   positive and the negative approaches to the fulfilment of life.
   Besides, in Indian tradition, charity and gifts are given by the
   right hand and that is how the word dakṣiṇa is suggestive of the
   meaning that he set out in the search of a generous patron.

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He begot a son Śrī Soḍhala by name; who, modest and
mature of intellect as he was, attained the glory of alleviating
the misery of the entire populace by endearing himself to
king Bhillama whose fortune was fast-growing by the grace
of Lakṣmī⁶. Also for Jaitra⁷, he established a column of
victory in the majesty of king Śrī Singhaṇa. (5)
The king Śrī Singhaṇadeva was the only victorious
monarch of the entire world, the emperor whose line of toe-
nails was picturesque by the reflection of the brilliant streak
of light issuing forth from the garland of the crown-gems of
the (other) kings (of his time) falling at his feet; and the
pervasive⁸ fire of whose victorious prowess burned the hearts
of his foes only. (6)
Foremost among the intellectuals, he (Soḍhala) by his
various accomplishments pleased the emperor, a mine of
merit by himself and a lover of merit⁹ (in others); and
satisfied the host of brahmins by affording generous gifts.
Indeed, what did he not give away, what did he not know
and what wealth did he not acquire¹⁰. In fact he possessed
every virtue and good quality of character. (7-8)
'S' interprets the entire verse taking Bhaskara as a proper
name and also as referring to the sun, and thereby brings out
the poetic beauty of the verse.
6. Goddess of wealth. It is implied that Soḍhala having pleased
the king Bhillama of immense treasures, obtained enormous
riches from him which he distributed among the needy out
of his generosity.
7. Jaitra was the son of king Bhillama who succeeded him, 'S'
however says that it is a name of a city.
8. Viśvavyāpī of the text literally means 'pervading the entire
universe'. 'S' points out the figure of speech known as Viśeṣokti
whereby, despite the presence of the cause, the effect is not
fully manifest; since here the fire of his prowess pervades the
whole world, yet it burns the hearts of his enemies only.
9. 'S' points out the use of parikara alaṅkāra (a figure of speech)
since the expression guṇarañjana is an adjective loaded with
meaningful intention.
10. The purport is that, he could and did part with every valuable
thing, i. e. he generously gave in charity and gifts, he was
proficient in every branch of knowledge, and he did not lack
in any kind of wealth; and thus he was prosperous in every
way.

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(iii) ग्रन्थकृतो वैशिष्ट्यं, ग्रन्थप्रणयनहेतुश्च
तस्माद्दुग्धाम्बुधेर्जातः शार्ङ्गदेवः सुधाकरः ।
उपर्युपरि सर्वान्यः सदौदार्यस्फुरत्करः ॥९॥
कृतगुरुपदसेवः प्रीणिताशेषदेवः
कलितसकलशास्त्रः पूजिताशेषपात्रः ।
जगति विततकीर्तिर्मन्मथोदारमूर्तिः
प्रचुरतरविवेकः शार्ङ्गदेवोऽयमेकः ॥१०॥
नानास्थानेषु संभ्रान्ता परिश्रान्ता सरस्वती ।
सहवासप्रिया शश्वद्विश्राम्यति तदालये ॥११॥
स विनोदैकरसिको भाग्यवैदग्ध्यभाजनम् ।
धनदानेन विप्राणामार्ति संहृत्य शाश्वतीम् ॥१२॥
जिज्ञासूनां च विद्याभिर्गदार्तानां रसायनैः ।
अधुनाऽखिललोकानां तापत्रयजिहीर्षया ॥१३॥
शाश्वताय च धर्माय कीर्त्यै निःश्रेयसाप्तये ।
आविष्करोति संगीतरत्नाकरमुदारधीः ॥१४॥
(iii) Author's personality and the purpose of his under-
taking : 9-14
From the heavenly ocean of milk¹ (Śrī Soḍhala) was
born the producer of nectar (the moon) named Śārṅgadeva
(the author), the rays² of whose righteous generosity spread
wide upon all. (9)
In serving his preceptor, endearing himself to all the
gods, studying all the sciences, adoring the worshipful,

1. Moon was one of the precious gems that were churned out of
   the mythological milk-ocean by the gods and the demons
   together (by a mythological convention).
2. The Skt. word kara means a ray, as well as a hand. So, since
   the poet is presenting a metaphor, the word is quite signi-
   ficant in both of its connotations.

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8 Treatment of Svara
Śārṅgadeva of widespread fame, with a majestic personality
comparable to cupid and endowed with clever wit and sharp
discrimination, is unique by himself in this world. (10)
Bewildered and tired of roaming around various places,
and desirous of his (Śārṅgadeva's) association, Sarasvatī, the
goddess of learning, has found a permanent rest-house in his
residence. (11)
The incomparable reveller of amusements, the deserving
candidate of good luck and skill, having mitigated the eternal
poverty³ of the brahmins by generous distribution of his
wealth among them, having satisfied the inquisitive scholars
by his learning, and having cured the sick by his drugs, he
the high-minded one now commences his work Saṅgīta-ratnākara
for emancipating⁴ the entire populace from the threefold
misery⁵ of the worldly life, serving the cause of eternal
dharma⁶, obtaining glory and for achieving liberation⁷. (12-14)
(iv) पूर्वाचार्यस्मरणम्
सदाशिवः शिवा ब्रह्मा भरतः कश्यपो मुनिः ।
मतङ्गो याष्टिको दुर्गाशक्तिः शार्दूलकोहलौ ॥१५॥
विशाखिलो दत्तिलश्च कम्बलोऽश्वतरस्तथा ।
वायुर्विश्वावसु रम्भाऽर्जुनो नारदतुम्बुरू ॥१६॥
3. Since the brahmins are entirely devoted to the pursuit of knowledge they are always in the need of money.
4. Liberation is the ultimate end of the art of music as understood in India. ‘S’ points out prakaraṇa songs such as madraka etc., that are mentioned subsequently in the text for this very purpose.
5. Threefold misery is suffering pertaining to the physical, mental and spiritual being.
6. Dharma is moral law, religion and duty appropriate to one’s station in life.
7. Saṅgīta is also a medium of attaining liberation, through the vocal compositions known as prakaraṇa-s to be sung in the praise of Lord Śiva.

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Section I : Introductory 9
आञ्जनेयो मातृगुप्तो रावणो नन्दिकेश्वरः ।
स्वातिर्गणो बिन्दुराजः क्षेत्रराजश्च राहुलः ॥१७॥
रुद्रटो नान्यभूपालो भोजभूवल्लभस्तथा ।
परमर्दी च सोमेशो जगदेकमहीपतिः ॥१८॥
व्याख्यातारो भारतीये लोल्लटोद्भटशङ्कुकाः ।
भट्टाभिनवगुप्तश्च श्रीमत्कीर्त्तिधरः परः ॥१९॥
अन्ये च बहवः पूर्वे ये संगीतविशारदाः ।
अगाधबोधमन्थेन तेषां मतपयोनिधिम् ॥२०॥
निर्मथ्य श्रीशाङ्गदेवः सारोद्धारमिमं व्यधात् ।
(iv) The predecessors of the author : 15-21b
Śārṅgadeva, having churned, by the churning rod of
his deep understanding, the ocean of the manifold viewpoints
of previous music experts such as—Sadāśiva, Śiva, Brahmā,
Bharata, sage Kaśyapa, Mataṅga, Yāṣṭika, Durgāśakti,
Śārdūla, Kohala, Viśākhila, Dattila, Kambala, Aśvatara,
Vāyu, Viśvāvasu, Rambhā, Arjuna, Nārada, Tumburū,
Āñjaneya, Mātṛgupta, Rāvaṇa, Nandikeśvara, Svāti, Bindu-
rāja, Kṣetrarāja, Rāhula⁸, Rudraṭa, King Nānyadeva, King
Bhoja, (Paramardī⁹), Someśa the vanquisher of his foes, king
Jagadeka and the interpreters of Bharata such as Lollaṭa,
Udbhaṭa, Śaṅkuka, Abhinavagupta and Kīrtidhara—has
brought out the cream¹⁰ of knowledge in the form of this book.
(15-21b)
8. Ad. ed. of S. R. reads Rāhala. See Dr. V. Raghavan’s article on “Some Names in Early Sangeet Literature”, Sangeet Natak Academy Bulletin No. 6, May 1957.
9. Paramardī—cf. G. O. S. No. 45—Bhāvaprakāśana p. 73, of Introduction, conjecturing Paramardī, to be a man of letters and a king. Paramardī can also be an epithet of Someśa.
10. ‘K’ suggests that, by describing his work as the acme of the works of his predecessors, the author is pointing out the superiority of his work. However ‘S’ poses the question, “Since so many works do exist on the subject what then is the need for the author to write a new book?”, to which he

Page 10

10 Treatment of Svara
(v) सङ्गीतलक्षणं, तत्र मार्गदेशीविभागश्च
गीतं वाद्यं तथा नृत्तं त्रयं संगीतमुच्यते ॥२१॥
मार्गो देशीति तद् द्वेधा तत्र मार्गः स उच्यते ।
यो मार्गितो विरिञ्च्याद्यैः प्रयुक्तो भरतादिभिः ॥२२॥
देवस्य पुरतः शंभोर्नियताभ्युदयप्रदः ।
देशे देशे जनानां यद्रुच्या हृदयराञ्जकम् ॥२३॥
गीतं च वादनं नृत्तं तद्देशीत्यभिधीयते ।
(v) The definition of saṅgīta : its classification as mārga and
deśī : 21c-24b
Gītam (vocal melody), vādyam (playing on instruments)
and nṛttam (dancing), all the three together¹ are known as
saṅgīta which is twofold, viz. mārga² and deśī. That which
was discovered by Brahmā and (first) practised by Bharata
and others in the audience of lord Śiva is known as mārga
(saṅgīta), which definitely bestows prosperity; while the saṅgīta
comprising gītam, vādyam and nṛttam, that entertains people
according to their taste in the different regions, is known as
deśī. (21c-24b)

replies that, "all these ancient works are too numerous and
intelligible with great difficulty and therefore the author's
attempt to present the essence of these works in a nutshell is
worthwhile and creditable". Another purpose of the author
in having referred to his predecessors as suggested by 'S' is
that, Śārṅgadeva, by having claimed to have taken the views
of all these authorities into consideration, wants to prove the
authenticity of his own work.

1. All the three are comprehended as different constituents of
   the same art, called saṅgīta. Etymologically the word saṅgīta
   means singing along with accompaniments and embellishments.
   The term saṅgīta is also used merely for music; but, that is a
   figurative use, taking container for the thing contained; or,
   taking the part for the whole.
2. The term mārga is etymologically explained by 'K' as derived
   from the Skt. root mṛg, to seek. Thus mārga is the way, the
   technique or practice based on the findings of the investigation

Page 11

Section I : Introductory 11
(vi) गीतस्य प्राधान्यम्
नृत्तं वाद्यानुगं प्रोक्तं वाद्यं गीतानुवर्ति च ॥२४॥
अतो गीतं प्रधानत्वादत्रादावभिधीयते ।
(vi) The predominance of gītam : 24c-25b
Dancing is guided by instrumental music which, in its
own turn, follows the vocal practice. Therefore, the vocal
melody (i. e. gītam), being the main constituent (of saṅgīta)
is expounded in the first instance. (24b-25c)
(vii) गीत-प्रशंसा
सामवेदादिदं गीतं संजग्राह पितामहः ॥२५॥
गीतेन प्रीयते देवः सर्वज्ञः पार्वतीपतिः ।
गोपोपतिरनन्तोऽपि वंशध्वनिवशं गतः ॥२६॥
सामगीतिरतो ब्रह्मा वीणाऽऽसक्ता सरस्वती ।
किमन्ये यक्षगन्धर्वदेवदानवमानवाः ॥२७॥
अज्ञातविषयास्वादो बालः पर्यङ्किकागतः ।
रुदन्गीतामृतं पीत्वा हर्षोत्कर्षं प्रपद्यते ॥२८॥
वनेचरस्तृणाहारश्चित्रं मृगशिशुः पशुः ।
लुब्धो लुब्धक सङ्गीते गीते यच्छति जीवितम् ॥२९॥
तस्य गीतस्य माहात्म्यं के प्रशंसितुमीशते ।
धर्मार्थकाममोक्षाणामिदमेवैकसाधनम् ॥३०॥

carried out by Brahmā, the creator in the subject matter of
the four Vedas (cf. नाट्यंवेदमिमं वेदं सेतिहासं करोम्यहम्) as quoted by
'K'. So, by implication mārga means classical, while deśī
means regional practice.

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12          Treatment of Svara
(vii) The importance and significance of gītam (melody):
25c-30
Gītam¹ (the vocal music) was extracted from the
Sāmaveda and collected² by Brahmā. Omniscient God, the
husband of Pārvatī (i. e., Śiva) is propitiated by gītam (i. e.,
singing); Kṛṣṇa, the lord of gopī-s, in spite of being infinite,
was enamoured³ of the sound of the bamboo flute. When
Brahmā (the creator) is devoted to sāmagīti (i c., the hymns
of the Sāmaveda sung in a particular style), and Sarasvatī is
attached⁴ to the lute (vīṇā), what to speak, then, of other
creatures, such as the yakṣa-s⁵ and of gandharva-s, the gods
and the demons, and the human beings. An infant, crying
in cradle, unaware of the enjoyment of objects, on tasting
the nectar of a song, knows no bounds of joy. Even a fawn,
an animal feeding on grass and moving in the forest, attract-
ed by the song of a hunter, is ready to sacrifice its life.
Who indeed can describe the grandeur⁶ of melody, for
in fact, it is the only⁷ means for the realisation of the four

Footnotes:

1. As suggested by ‘K’ the hymns of the Sāmaveda are sung in
   seven tones, viz. kruṣṭa, prathama, dvitīya, tṛtīya, caturtha, mandra
   and atisvārya, and so is the present music based on seven tones
   of a different nomenclature.
2. ‘K’ suggests that since the creator himself has extracted saṅgīta
   from the Sāmaveda it is open to all the four castes.
3. Lit. entrapped, charmed, confined.
4. That is, fond of Sarasvatī, the goddess of learning, who, in the
   Hindu mythology, is contemplated with a vīṇā in two of her four
   hands and is considered to be the presiding deity of fine arts.
5. Yakṣa-s and gandharva-s are semi-divine beings of mythological
   origin that have also found a place in poetic convention in
   Sanskrit literature. Yakṣa-s as demigods are considered to be
   the attendants of Kubera, the god of wealth, and guard his
   gardens and treasures; while gandharva-s are celestial singers.
6. Lit. the significance and importance.
7. Though there are definite means for the attainment of these
   values, music is a delightful medium of achieving the same
   ends. Vocal music is employed in the worship of the Divine
   almost universally. Thus it earns spiritual merit. ‘S’ further
   points out that, as mentioned in the text in the context of
   jāti-s, the proper use of jāti-s is instrumental to the attainment
   of dharma.
   That music is a means of earning one’s livelihood and
   wealth needs no explanation, and similarly it also serves as a

Page 13

         Section I : Introductory          13
primary values of human life, viz. righteousness (dharma),
wealth (artha), enjoyment (kāma) and emancipation (mokṣa).
(25c-30)

(viii) ग्रन्थस्थसप्ताध्यायानां वस्तुसंग्रहः

तत्र स्वरगताध्याये प्रथमे प्रतिपाद्यते ।
शरीरं नादसंभूतिः स्थानानि श्रुतयस्तथा ॥ ३१ ॥
ततः शुद्धाः स्वराः सप्त विकृता द्वादशाप्यमी ।
कुलानि जातयो वर्णा द्वीपान्यार्षं च दैवतम् ॥ ३२ ॥
छन्दांसि विनियोगाश्च स्वराणां श्रुतिजातयः ।
ग्रामाश्च मूर्छनास्तानाः शुद्धाः कूटाश्च संख्यया ॥ ३३ ॥
प्रस्तारः खण्डमेरुश्च नष्टोद्दिष्टप्रबोधकः ।
स्वरसाधारणं जातिसाधारणमतः परम् ॥ ३४ ॥
काकल्यन्तरयोः सम्यक्प्रयोगो वर्णलक्षणम् ।
त्रिषष्टिरप्यलङ्कारास्त्रयोदशविधं ततः ॥ ३५ ॥
जातिलक्ष्मा ग्रहांशादि कपालानि च कम्बलम् ।
नानाविधा गोतयश्चेत्येतावान्वस्तुसंग्रहः ॥ ३६ ॥
अथ रागविवेकाख्येऽध्याये वक्ष्यामहे क्रमात् ।
ग्रामरागांश्चोपरागान् रागान् भाषा विभाषिकाः ॥ ३७ ॥
ततोऽप्यन्तरभाषाश्च रागाङ्गाण्यखिलान्यपि ।
भाषाङ्गान्युपपाङ्गानि क्रियाङ्गाणि च तत्त्वतः ॥ ३८ ॥
ततः प्रकीर्णकाध्याये तृतीये कथयिष्यते ।
वाग्गेयकारो गान्धर्वः स्वरादिर्गायनस्तथा ॥ ३९ ॥

Footnote (continued from Page 12):
medium of entertainment apart from affording aesthetic
delight; e. g., music is employed to heighten the sentiment of
love. So, music serves as means to the realisation of the two
other values, viz., wealth and enjoyment. Finally, music is
a means to spiritual emancipation when it is practised in the
spirit of dedication, e. g. in the case of songs like madraka
given in the text subsequently (Chap. V.).

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14 Treatment of Svara
गायनी गुणदोषाश्च तयोः शब्दभिदास्तथा ।
गुणदोषाश्च शब्दस्य शरीरं तद्गुणास्तथा ॥४०॥
तद्दोषा गमकः स्थाया आलप्तिर्वृन्दलक्षणम् ।
ततः प्रबन्धाध्याये तु धातवोऽङ्गानि जातयः ॥४१॥
प्रबन्धानां, द्विधा सूदः शुद्धश्छायालगस्तथा ।
आलिक्रमप्रबन्धाश्च सूदस्था आलिसंश्रयाः ॥४२॥
विप्रकीर्णस्ततश्छायालगसूदसमाधिताः ।
गीतस्या गुणदोषाश्च वक्ष्यन्ते शार्ङ्गसूरिणा ॥४३॥
तालाध्याये पञ्चमे तु मार्गतालाः कलास्तथा ।
पाता मार्गाश्च चत्वारस्तथा मार्गकलाऽष्टकम् ॥४४॥
गुरुलध्वादिमानं चंककलत्वादयो भिदाः ।
पादभागास्तथा मात्रास्ताले पातकलाविधिः ॥४५॥
अङ्गुलीनां च नियमो भेदा युग्मादयस्तथा ।
परिवर्तो लयास्तेषां यतयो गीतकानि च ॥४६॥
छन्दकादीनि गीतानि तालाङ्गनिचयस्तथा ।
गीताङ्गानि च वक्ष्यन्ते देशीतालाश्च तत्त्वतः ॥४७॥
निःशङ्कशाङ्गदेवेन तालानां प्रत्ययास्तथा ।
षष्ठे नानाविधं वाद्यमध्याये कथयिष्यते ॥४८॥
सप्तमे नर्तनं नानारसभावाः क्रमेण च ।
(viii) Synopsis of the work: 31-49b
Now in the first chapter concerning svara¹ (tone) etc.,
the topics of study are :
(i) human embodiment²,

1. 'K' explains svaragata in svaragatādhyāya as स्वरानुगताः स्वरगताः
   श्रुतिग्रामा—etc, i. e the topics pertaining to svara such as śruti,
   grāma, mūrcchanā and so on dealt with in this chapter.
2. Human embodiment is discussed in this context because
   human body is the instrument of voice production, i. e. the
   manifestation of nāda.

Page 15

Section I : Introductory 15
(ii) the process of sound production (in the body),
(iii) the places (of sound production, i. e., the three
registers),
(iv) the śruti-s³ (micro-tones),
(v) the seven śuddha⁴ (standard) svara-s (notes or tones)
along with twelve vikṛta⁵ (modified forms),
(vi) the family, caste, colour, terrestrial region, origi-
nator sage, presiding deity, metre and the proper
application⁶ of each of the svara-s,
(vii) the generic groups of śruti-s,
(viii) the grāma-s (basic scales),
(ix) the mūrcchanā-s⁷ (modified prototype scales),
(x) the śuddha⁸ and kūṭa tāna-s (specific combinational
and permutational note-series) with their number,
(xi) the prastāra⁹ (sequential permutation),
(xii) the khaṇḍameru¹⁰ (permutation indicator),
3. Śruti-s are the twentytwo divisions of the scale of seven notes,
to be defined and demonstrated later in the text.
4. Śuddha svara-s are the seven tones of a definite pitch compre-
hending 4, 3, 2, 4, 4, 3 and 2 śruti-intervals respectively.
5. Vikṛta-svara-s comprise these very seven tones with more or
less modified pitch in the terms of śruti-intervals, explained
later in the text.
6. Viniyoga indicates the proper context in the terms of drama-
turgy and aesthetic delight, i e., rasa for which a particular
melody is employed. See Ragadhyaya (Chapter II) for
illustrations.
7. Series of seven notes in ascending and descending order,
commencing with different notes.
8. In the ancient sense, when one or two notes are omitted from
a scale, in the act of singing, it becomes a tāna; and if such
omission does not alter the order of the rest of the notes, it is
called a śuddha tāna, while kūṭa-tāna is related to the permu-
tation of notes in groups of two to seven.
9. Prastāra represents an actual working out of these various
permutation and combination patterns.
10. Khaṇḍameru is the name of a mathematical device in the form
of a numerical graph which indicates naṣṭa and uddiṣṭa, where
the former points out the particular permutation for a given
number and the latter gives the number of a given permutation,
to be explained subsequently in the text. (63-70 of Sec. IV)

Page 16

16 Treatment of Svara
(xiii) the svara-sādhāraṇa¹¹ (overlapping in note-inter-
vals),
(xiv) the jāti-sādhāraṇa¹² (overlapping in jāti-s),
(xv) the proper use of kākalī-niṣāda¹³ and antara-gāndhāra,
(xvi) the definition of varṇa¹⁴ (colour or pattern of tonal
movement),
(xvii) sixtythree alaṅkāra-s¹⁵ (patterns of tonal phrases),
(xviii) the thirteen characteristic features of jāti-s¹⁶
(melodic types), graha (initial note), aṁśa¹⁷ (funda-
mental note) etc.,
(xix) the kapāla and kambala songs, and
(xx) the various types of gīti-s¹⁸.
These form the collection of topics under study. (31-36)
In the chapter entitled 'Rāgaviveka' (lit. the discernment
of rāga-s) we shall respectively speak of :—
Grāmarāga-s, uparāga-s, rāga-s, bhāṣā-s, vibhāṣā-s, antara-
bhāṣā-s and rāgāṅga-s in full detail and the bhāṣāṅga-s, upāṅga-s
and the kriyāṅga-s, in their essentials. (37-38).
11. Svarasādhāraṇa is defined later in the text; but here it would
suffice to say that it comprehends a pitch interval that is
commonly incorporated by both the tones involved.
12. Among the jāti-s of the same grāma having the same tone as
the fundamental note, the identical melodic presentation that
obtains between them is called jāti-sādhāraṇa (See 10-11b of
Sec. V).
13. Antaragāndhāra and kākalī-niṣāda are the pitch-intervals
obtaining in the svara-sādhāraṇa, located at the distance of
2 śruti-s from gāndhāra and niṣāda respectively.
14. Varṇa signifies 'type of tonal movement', viz. ascending,
descending, etc.
15. Alaṅkāra signifies a melodic phrase, a definite arrangement of
varṇa-s.
16. Jāti represents the first written record of a scientific study
of the melodic patterns that later on developed into rāga-
structures. Jāti, therefore, is conceived as an archetype of
melodic patterns, the mother of rāga-s.
17. Graha and aṁśa are specific notes of a rāga-structure which are
defined later in the text.
18. Gīti signifies the act of singing, comprehending the tonal,
rhythmic and verbal structure of a musical composition.

Page 17

Section I : Introductory 17
Then in the chapter entitled 'Prakīrṇaka' (lit. miscella-
neous) will be described :—
(i) Vāggeyakāra¹⁹ (master composer),
(ii) Gāndharva,²⁰
(iii) Svarādī²¹
(iv) Songster,
(v) Songstress and
(vi) the good and bad characteristics of the two (i. e.,
iv & v),
(vii) the classification of voice and
(viii) the good and bad qualities of voice,
(ix) Śārīra²² and its
(x) good and bad qualities,
(xi) Gamaka²³ (shaking on tones), i. e., grace,
(vii) Sthāya²⁴ (specific features of tonal rendering),
(xiii) Ālāpti²⁵ and
(xiv) the nature of group performance. (39-41b)
The following topics will be dealt with by the learned
Śārṅgadeva in the fourth chapter entitled 'Prabandha'²⁶
(musical composition) :
19. Vāggeyakāra, a master composer, is capable of composing not
only the tonal structure of a musical composition but also the
verbal structure, i. e., the text of the melody.
20. One who is proficient in mārga as well as deśī, music, is called
gāndharva.
21. Svarādi is the performer of deśī music only.
22. Śārīra is peculiarly an Indian concept and has no counterpart
in western terminology. The author elsewhere defines it as
"the built-in capacity of voice (or the entire organism respon-
sible for the production of voice) for musical application (or
for the delineation of a rāga etc.) without any training" (cf.
S.R. III. 82).
23. Gamaka is a graceful shake.
24. Sthāya is an organic part (avayava) of rāga. (See S.R. III
97c-98).
25. Ālāpti is the delineation of rāga.
26. Prabandha is a musical composition, but in this chapter, the
author deals with only vocal compositions and their classi-
fications.

18 Treatment of Svara
(i) Dhātu-s²⁷ (sections) }
(ii) Aṅga-s²⁸ (integral parts) } of vocal composition
(iii) Jāti-s²⁹ (classes) }
(iv) the twofold sūḍa, viz. śuddha and chāyālaga, and
(v) Ālikrama-compositions rooted in the sūḍa and depending on āli
(vi) Viprakīrṇa³⁰ compositions, depending on Chāyālaga sūḍa, followed by
(vii) the good and bad qualities inherent in vocal performance (41c-43).
In the fifth chapter entitled 'Tāla'³¹ (the cyclic time-figure) we shall essentially speak of—
(i) The mārga-tāla-s
(ii) Kalā-s³² (inaudible movements of the hand)
(iii) Pāta-s³³ (audible movements of the hand)
27. Dhātu, literally means a basic element and this expression seems to have been borrowed from Āyurveda (cf. verse 71 of Section 2). Here it signifies 'section' of a musical composition which basically refers to its tonal aspect in contrast with its syllabic content or the non-tonal aspect called mātu. The constitution of prabandha has been conceived on the analogy of an organic body like that of a human being. A prabandha may have 2 to 5 dhātu-s, the average being 4, i. e. udgrāha dhruva, melāpaka and ābhoga, the fifth being antarā.
28. Aṅga, literally means a part of an organic body; here, an integral part of a musical composition. Prabandha is said to have six limbs (i.e, organs), viz. two feet, i e., svara and tāla; two eyes, i.e., pada and tena; and two hands, i e., pāṭa and biruda. We can have two to six of these in a piece.
29. That is, generic classes of vocal compositions, viz. medinī etc., five in number, based on the number of aṅga-s used in a composition.
30. Viprakīrṇa-miscellaneous, i.e., apart from those enumerated above.
31. Tāla signifies cyclic movement in time and is popularly known as the 'time beat'. The author classifies tāla as mārga and deśī and speaks of five mārga-tāla-s and 120 deśī-tāla-s.
Tāla literally is derived from the Skt. root tal—to establish. So, in tāla are established (i.e., based) the three arts of singing, playing on musical instruments and dancing. Tāla is the measure of time that regulates action in music.
32. Kalā, in this context is defined as niḥśabda-kriyā, i.e., soundless act (beat).
33. Pāta is defined as saśabda-kriyā, i.e., act, accompanied with sound (beat).
Section I : Introductory 19
(iv) Mārga-s³⁴ (styles)
(v) the eight mārgakalā-s (i. e., mātrā-s, viz. dhruvakā etc.)
(vi) the standard measure of guru (long) and laghu³⁵ (short)
(vii) the varieties beginning with ekakalā etc.
(viii) the padabhāga-s³⁶
(ix) the mātrā-s³⁷ (fixed units of time)
(x) the technique of pāta³⁸ and kalā in tāla
(xi) the regulation of fingering
(xii) the varieties such as yugma etc.
(xiii) Parivarta³⁹ (the repetition of pāda divisions)
(xiv) Laya-s⁴⁰ (tempo or musical speed)
(xv) and their yati-s (orders of laya)
(xvi) Gītaka-s⁴¹
(xvii) Chandaka gīta-s⁴²
(xviii) the group of tālāṅga-s, and
34. Mārga-s in this context signify the four ways, viz. dhruva etc., in which a particular time-beat cycle can be executed.
35. Laghu and guru signify, primarily, effort in pronouncing a syllable. In metres regulated by the number of syllabic instances—one instance or mātrā is allotted to a short vowel and two to a long one. A syllable is that part of a word that can be pronounced at once, i.e., a vowel with or without one or more consonants.
36. A unit of two or four guru-s.
37. Mātrā signifies a unit, a standard time-measure of a beat-cycle.
38. Pāta roughly signifies a beat that sounds and kalā, a beat that does not sound.
39. Parivarta signifies repetition of padabhāga etc.
40. Laya is tempo, i. e. space in-between the beats. 'S' defines it as the time interval in the act of beating, while yati signifies a scheme of sequence in laya-s.
41 & 42. Seven (or fourteen) song-patterns known as madraka etc. are called prakaraṇākhya gīta-s which are predominently based on tāla and are said to be sung in the praise of lord Śiva for obtaining (spiritual) emancipation.

20 Treatment of Svara
(xiv) gītāṅga-s
(xx) Deśī tāla-s⁴³
(xxi) the pratyaya-s (tabular formulas for finding out
the serial number and the structural form of tāla-s
(44-48b)
In the sixth chapter will be described numerous musi-
cal instruments, while in the seventh chapter, we shall deal
with dancing and the various rasa-s (types of aesthetic
delight) and bhāva-s (modes of being) in due order. (48c-
49b).
43. 120 deśī-tāla-s such as ādi-tāla etc. have been enumerated by
Śārṅgadeva.
अथ द्वितीयं पिण्डोत्पत्तिप्रकरणम्
क. विषयावतरणम्
(i) नादमहिमा
गीतं नादात्मकं वाद्यं नादव्यक्त्या प्रशस्यते ।
तद्द्वयानुगतं नृत्तं नादाधीनमतस्त्रयम् ॥ १ ॥
नादेन व्यज्यते वर्णः पदं वर्णात्पदाद्वचः ।
वचसो व्यवहारोऽयं नादाधीनमतो जगत् ॥ २ ॥
Section 2
The Genesis of the Human Embodiment
A. Introduction :
(i) The importance of nāda : 1-2
Nāda¹ is the very² essence of vocal music. Instrumental
music is enjoyable³, as it manifests nāda. Nṛtta (dance)
Having presented a synoptical view of the proposed work, the
author proceeds to describe the genesis of human embodiment. What
is the relevance of such a topic in a music treatise ? It is indeed ex-
ceptional that Śārṅgadeva has considered it necessary to deal with this
subject matter which concerns embryology and physiology of human
body. He could do so, for he was himself a physician; and he thought

1. Nāda, as already stated, is primordial sound considered by
   some of the schools of Indian Philosophy, specially Yoga and
   Tantra, to be the primary cause of the phenomenal world. Of
   the five basic elements, earth, water, fire, air and ether, per-
   ceived correspondingly by the senses of smell, taste, vision,
   touch and hearing, ether is the most pervasive and the cause
   of the rest. Sound is considered to be the manifestation of
   nāda, which is described as Nāda-brahman and is thus equated
   with the absolute of the Upaniṣads.
2. That is, the intangible substance which manifests itself through
   the articulate sound. The manifest refers to the unmanifest
   by implication.
3. Literally praśasyate means, 'is praised'; but, 'S' rightly inter-
   prets it as 'ramanyatām upaiti', i e., attains the excellence
   of beauty, becomes enjoyable as beautiful.

Page 22

22 Treatment of Svara
follows⁴ both (i.e., vocal and instrumental music); therefore,
all the three⁵ together depend on nāda. (1)
it fit to do so because human body provides the required circumstance
and instrumentation for the production of voice and vocal melody.
Just as some study of physiology is necessary for understanding the
process of voice production in the science of voice culture, so also, our
author finds it necessary to investigate the genesis of human embodi-
ment. This is indicated by him in the first few verses of this section.
However, Śārṅgadeva does not seem to be the only writer on music
of his times, who has considered it worthwhile to deal with the subject
of human embodiment. Śāradatanaya, who is almost a contemporary
of Śārṅgadeva (cf. Introduction to Bhāvaprakāśanam, G.O.S. No. XLV,
Baroda, p. 76, wherein he is placed between 1175-1250 A.D.), and whose
work mainly concerns poetics and deals with music as a subsidiary art
to dramatics, also mentions in the beginning of the seventh Chapter the
process of creation according to the Kashmir Śaivism and Tantra, the
process of human embodiment (albeit very briefly as compared to S.R.
and rather somewhat differently) and voice production in the body.
Attention would be drawn to some of his theories in Section 3 of this
Chapter, and a note pointing the salient features of his account of the
embodiment is given at the end of this topic (vide comments on 119).
It is, however, interesting to note that he designates the subject
matter significantly as geya-samutpatti (the creation of vocal music).
Geya is the technical word for melodic structure. Therefore, his treat-
ment of the subject is quite differently oriented. With him the
description of the phenomenal world or of the physical body is inciden-
tal to what he calls geya-samutpatti. And he describes it because geya
(in the sense of music) is a means of realising the four values of life, viz.
dharma, artha, kāma and mokṣa—i.e. social and moral good, economic
prosperity, enjoyment and spiritual emancipation (cf. p. 182 Bhāva-
prakāśanam).
4. In the ancient Indian aesthetic concept of rasa and beauty,
saṅgīta, comprises the three arts of vocal and instrumental
music and dance. The statement is, therefore, to be under-
stood in that context. ‘S’ quotes, aṅgenālambayed gītam, i. e.,
‘song should be supported by the gesture’, to support and to
elucidate the statement, which becomes intelligible if saṅgīta
is considered to be a composite art of singing, playing on
instruments and dancing.
5. The word trayam of the text brings out the composite nature of
saṅgīta.

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Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment 23
Nāda⁶ manifests the letters (of alphabet), letters consti-
tute the word,⁷ and words make a sentence; so, the entire
business of life is carried on, through language⁸; and there-
fore, the whole phenomenon (i. e., the world) is based on
nāda.⁹ (2)
Nāda is the basis, not only for music and dance, though specially
related to it, but of the entire business of life; since it constitutes the
very substance of speech which is the only means of communication. The
implication, as derived by ‘K’ is that, the fact that nāda is the very
basis of all manifest life, makes it more important and relevant for the
author to deal with the subject of the genesis of the human embodiment.
(ii) द्विविधो नादः, पिण्डोत्पत्तिप्रतिपादनौचित्यम्
आहतोऽनाहतश्चेति द्विधा नादो निगद्यते ।
सोऽयं प्रकाशते पिण्डे तस्मात्पिण्डोऽभिधीयते ॥ ३ ॥
(ii) Twofold nāda : 3
Nāda is said to be twofold, viz., produced¹ and unpro-
duced. Since it manifests itself in the human body, the
(process of) embodiment is being described. (3)
6. Nāda, here, means sound, i. e., articulation of consonant
letters in conjunction with vowels; ‘S’ interprets nāda, in this
context, as ‘dhvani’ and explains it as the sound which is not
distinguished in terms of varṇa-s, i. e., the particular articula-
tions of sound symbolised by the letters of alphabet, but which
is heard from afar and is responsible for the perception of
high and low pitch associated with letters.
7. Pada in Sanskrit is a meaningful word, i. e., a word with a
relational value.
8. Lit. sentence which is accepted to be the unit of language.
9. Cf. Br. D. verses 16-20, quoted by ‘S’, for similar import.

1. Āhata of the text literally means ‘struck’ and anāhata literally
   means ‘unstruck.’ The idea is that nāda has two forms, viz.,
   the created and the uncreated, the former being an object of
   sense perception and the latter a matter of mystic experience
   of Yoga in which sound and light are fused together and there
   is direct perception.

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24 Treatment of Svara
ख. पिण्डोत्पत्तौ दार्शनिकतत्त्वनिरूपणम्
(i) ब्रह्मस्वरूपम्
अस्ति ब्रह्म चिदानन्दं स्वयंज्योतिर्निरञ्जनम् ।
ईश्वरं लिङ्गमित्युक्तमद्वितीयमजं विभुः ॥ ४ ॥
निर्विकारं निराकारं सर्वेश्वरमनश्वरम् ।
सर्वशक्ति च सर्वज्ञम्,
B. Genesis : The metaphysical viewpoint.
(i) The nature of Brahman : 4-5c
Brahman is existence¹, blissful² awareness, the self-lumi-
nous³ and taintless⁴ supreme⁵ deity, said to be the ulti-
Human body is a part and parcel of the manifest phenomenon.
To trace the process of the genesis of human embodiment, the author
begins with the unmanifest, unconditioned, timeless reality; and explains
the emergence of numberless individuals, their relationship with the
reality, and the principle determining the differences inherent in the
individual manifestations of that pure existence.

1. Asti Brahman of the text literally rendered would mean, 'there
   is Brahman'; but the word 'there' has to be used for the conve-
   nience of the syntax of English language, there being no
   corresponding idea implied in the text. So Brahman is the
   essence of all existence, the is-ness.
2. The concept of Brahman, best expounded in the Advaitic school
   of the vedānta system of Indian philosophy, visualises three
   aspects of Brahman in the well-known phrase—‘Saccidānanda’
   which refers to the unitary character of pure being, pure
   intelligence and pure bliss. Though Brahman is devoid of all
   qualities, these are the essential features in terms of which
   the time-less reality is comprehended through language.
   Cidānanda is ‘bliss’, as distinguished from the duality of feeling
   in terms of pain and pleasure, which is possible in awareness,
   the operation of pure intelligence.
3. Svayamjyotiḥ of the text literally means that which is a light
   unto itself, i. e., the one that requires no external power to
   manifest itself.
4. That is without any blemish, absolutely pure, free from igno-
   rance.
5. The word Īśvara of the text etymologically is derived from the
   root ‘īśa’, to control, and literally means the controller, the
   ruler. But, since here it is used in the context of vedantic

Page 25

Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment 25
mate⁶ cause, the non-dual⁷, unborn⁸, measureless⁹, unmodi-
fied¹⁰, formless, imperishable, omnipotent and omniscient
‘supreme ruler’¹¹. (4-5c)
(ii) जीवस्वरूपम्
, तदंशा जीवसंज्ञकाः ॥ ५ ॥
अनाद्यविद्योपहिता यथाऽग्नेर्विस्फुलिङ्गकाः ।
दार्वद्युपाधिसंभिन्नास्ते कर्मभिरनादिभिः ॥ ६ ॥
सुखदुःखप्रदैः पुण्यपापरूपैर्नियन्त्रिताः ।
तत्तज्जातियुतं देहमायुर्भोगं च कर्मजम् ॥ ७ ॥
प्रतिजन्म प्रपद्यन्ते,
parlance, following in the wake of Brahman, it is used to denote
Saguṇa-Brahman, i. e., Brahman qualified by the power of
universal consciousness; and therefore, is equivalent to God or
the personal deity. Īśvara is defined as one who is capable
of doing, not doing or doing otherwise.
6. Liṅgam is defined by ‘K’ as Prapañcalayanālliṅgam, i. e., that
in which the dissolution of the phenomenon takes place.
Brahman is said to be the cause of the origination, sustenance
and the dissolution of the creation.
7. Advitīya is a negative epithet, i. e., it negates duality but does
not affirm oneness, for any positive statement presupposes its
opposite, e. g., one implies many, so Brahman is non-dual, i. e.,
incomparable, inconceivable. ‘S’ interprets it as devoid of
internal and external differentiation.
8. That is timeless existence.
9. Vibhu means pervasive, unlimited.
10. Yāska (Nirukta I. 1.1.2, p. 23) has spoken of six modifications
of existential being, i. e., coming into being, being in existence,
growing, disintegrating, decaying and destruction. Brahman is
free from these modifications.
11. That is, the God of the gods, the controller of all the natural
forces.
In the text this expression appears after ‘formless’ and
not at the end as given in the translation for syntactic
convenience.

26 Treatment of Svara
(ii) The nature of jīva (individual being): 5d-8a
Its relative¹ manifestations called jīva-s, delimited by
the beginningless² nescience, are like the sparks of fire,
differentiated by the circumstances³ of wood etc. (5d-6c)
Here the author elucidates the essential nature of the individual
beings and their relationship with the source of all manifestation. As
the sparks are identical with fire in essence and yet have an individual
identity in form, so also the individual beings are limited manifesta-
tions of the unlimited Brahman, distinguishable from each other by the
exigencies of existence caused by the unawareness of the totality of
being, the substratum of individual existence. Thus the relationship
between the manifest individual and the unmanifest, unconditioned
reality is that of identity in difference. 'S' admits of another inter-
pretation as well. He lays emphasis on the word aṁśa of the text and
points out the fact that, since the individuals are conceived as parts and
are admitted to be many, their relationship with Brahman is the one
that subsists between the parts constituting the whole. 'K' interprets
aṁśa as mātrā, i.e., a partial manifestation.
However, aṁśa cannot be interpreted merely as a part, for the
concept of aṁśa implies an incomplete or partial manifestation of the
whole, i.e., it must be understood that the part in this context necessa-
rily implies the whole. So the part is not essentially different from the
whole, though a limited manifestation of the whole.

1. An aṁśa as explained above, is a partial manifestation of the
   whole, i.e., a relative entity. This in fact is a unique relation,
   and when actually comprehended, transcends every form of
   relationship. So each implies all.
2. 'Time' is a relative concept, and it is only in the relative
   existence that time has significance; in the absolute, time has
   no value, since it is timeless. Nescience is said to be beginn-
   ingless, i. e., causeless, since it has no real value in terms of
   being. Nescience is unawareness of the total being and is
   responsible for delimiting awareness in the consciousness of
   the individual, and thus bringing time into being. So being
   anterior to time, it can have no beginning in time.
3. Fire arising out of different kinds of wood gives rise to the
   sparks of a different colour or intensity; so, the sparks are not
   different from fire in so far as heat is the essence of both; but,
   yet, they are different with reference to the circumstance of
   their being due to the difference in the kind of wood that is
   the material cause of the fire. Thus the individuals differ in
   the form of their conditioning; but, are the same in so far as
   all are conditioned manifestations of awareness which by itself
   is unlimited.
   Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment 27
   Governed by their beginningless actions⁴, virtuous as
   well as evil, productive of pleasure and pain, they (jīva-s)
   attain, in every⁵ birth, to a physical body associated with
   appropriate genus⁶, life-time and enjoyment, as a conse-
   quence of their unfructified⁷ accumulated action. (6d-8a).
   Here the author accounts for the variety in the form of individual
   beings so very characteristic of our creation. Nescience being the basis
   of individuation, action proceeding from it is also of the same order,
   i. e., beginningless. Since the nescience is itself the cause of time,
   individual differences cannot be accounted for in time, nor the differen-
   ces are caused by any divine agency for God, though conceived to be
   the substratum of the nescience, is, by that very reason, unaffected by
   it. So, the differences in individual beings are taken to be a given fact
   and explained by the law of karma. Karma is incomplete partial actiou
   which necessitates a process of time-space for its completion. A seed
   when sown takes time to grow into a tree and bear some fruit. Thus
   sowing of the seed is a part of the whole process of a fruit-bearing tree.
   Another implication of the statement is that, since the actions of the
   individuals are beginningless, the differences characterising their being
   must ultimately be traced to the nescience, which is impersonal and
   beginningless. Thus the problem of the origination of good and evil is
   shifted from the individual level to the universal level.
   This is a unique concept which avoids the problem of the origina-
   tion of evil, being attributed to divine authorship and also the indivi-
   duals are absolved from having good or evil as their inherent quality.
   Good and evil actions alike are the product of nescience, which is
   beginningless but not endless, since it can be ended by right knowledge
   or self-awareness Thus, nobody is eternally damned and everybody
   can hope for salvation.
4. Since the nescience, responsible for the sense of doership in
   the individual, is beginningless, the actions proceeding from
   that mentality are also spoken of as beginningless.
5. Many births are visualised for an individual; and this involves
   the theory of reincarnation. A thought body enduring till
   final emancipation is spoken of in the next verse. In every
   birth the individual is endowed with the suitable physical
   vehicle necessitated by his action.
6. The individual may be born in any kingdom, viz., vegetable
   kingdom, animal kingdom, etc. in their species, i. e. various
   animals, or among human beings, in different classes, occupied
   with different vocations, since the enjoyment of life is related
   to it.
7. The Skt. word karma is difficult to translate. The word
   is derived from the root kṛ meaning 'to do', and denotes action,
   work, vocation, etc., in general. But in the context of re-
   incarnation and the law of karma associated with it, karma is
   incomplete action, unspent force involving a time process for

28 Treatment of Svara
(iii) सूक्ष्मशरीरम्
, तेषामस्त्यपरं पुनः ।
सूक्ष्मं लिङ्गशरीरं तदामोक्षादक्षयं मतम् ॥ ८ ॥
सूक्ष्मभूतेन्द्रियप्राणाऽवस्थाऽऽत्मकमिदं विदुः ।
(iii) The subtle body : 8b-9b
They are also possessed of another subtle body¹, which
is considered to be indestructible² till emancipation³,
and is known to be made of the (essence of the five great)
elements⁴, the senses⁵ (indriya-s) and the vital⁶ breaths in
their subtle⁷ form. (8b-9b)
The physical gross body is obviously subject to decay and is
destroyed in course of time; how then, is the individual reborn in
another body ? Anticipating the question, the author declares that an
individual, apart from his physical body, is possessed of another subtle
body that is made up of very fine matter which is not directly perceived
by our senses, since it constitutes the very essence of the five elements
etc. This (thought) body, so to say, is ideal and transmigrates from one
birth to another. But even this subtle body is destroyed at the time of
liberation which is the state of unconditioned intelligence or pure
consciousness.

1. Liṅga śarīra is the subtle body which endures the death of the
   physical body and becomes responsible for a new birth.
2. Indestructible in the relative sense; for it lasts as long as there
   is craving in any form, and craving is caused by nescience
   which is dispelled by right knowledge. When the individual
   is free from craving, he no longer is held in this body and
   becomes one with reality.
3. Ad. ed. reads tadā mokṣād etc. instead of tad-āmokṣād etc.
4. That is earth, water, fire, air and ether.
5. ‘K’ enumerates only sense-organs, while ‘S’ also includes the
   five motor organs known as karmendriya-s and the mind, under
   the import of the word indriya of the text.
6. Five types of the vital breath spoken of later in this Section.
7. Subtle form is that which is imperceptible by the senses.
   Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment 29
   (iv) सृष्टिसंहार-प्रवाहः
   जीवानामुपभोगाय जगदेतत्सृजत्यजः ॥ ९ ॥
   स आत्मा परमात्मा च विश्रान्त्यै संहरत्यथ ।
   तदेतत्सृष्टिसंहारं प्रवाहानादि संमतम् ॥१०॥
   (iv) The cycle of creation and destruction : 9c-10
   The unborn¹ one creates this world for the enjoyment²
   of the individual beings; and that Ātman,³ the universal self,⁴
   Having stated what the nature of reality is, and the relationship
   of reality as a whole with the fact of individual beings, now the author
   proceeds to relate the nature of phenomenon, the fact of the ephemeral
   world and its relationship with its substratum, the timeless being, the
   causeless which is unborn. Whereas the phenomenon is essentially
   transitory (that is, it comes into being, continues for a certain time and
   returns to its source), the source, the reality is causeless, beyond time,
   eternal. The phenomenon of the world is created out of the measureless
   eternity and is dissolved back into it. Such is the relationship of the
   unmanifest and the manifest, which is beginningless, an eternal play
   of the Lord.
8. Being eternal the cause of creation is causeless. The Skt. word
   aja of the text literally means ‘unborn’ and is a familiar
   epithet of Brahman in the vedāntic texts.
9. Why does the creation take place ? For the enjoyment of the
   individual beings that constitute the creation. The creator
   has no motive; so creation is a spontaneous movement. The
   Skt. word bhoga is neutral and includes all experience, pleasant
   as well as painful. Thus, it is the individual beings who are
   involved in the duality of opposites in experience, for the
   creator, creation is sportive action.
10. That Ātman, refers to Brahman, the unborn. The word Ātman,
    by itself stands for reality behind all experience; and is in this
    sense synonymous with the word Brahman. However, when
    the word jīva is prefixed to it, it refers to the individual being,
    and when the word parama is prefixed to it, it means the
    universal being, God.
11. Paramātman is the super-self. Ātman with reference to the
    individual beings that are conditioned by nescience indicates
    the substratum of reality that sustains the illusion of individu-
    ality; while with reference to the creator it indicates the sub-
    stratum of reality supporting the entire phenomenon. Thus,
    Paramātman is the supreme self, i. e., the self of all the beings.

30 Treatment of Svara
withdraws it for the sake of rest⁵; thus, the order of creation
and dissolution is believed to be an incessant flow.⁶ (9c-10)
(v) जीवब्रह्मणोः सम्बन्धः
ते जीवा नात्मनो भिन्ना भिन्नं वा नात्मनो जगत् ।
शक्त्या सृजन्नभिन्नोऽसौ सुवर्णं कुण्डलादिव ॥११॥
सृजत्यविद्ययेत्यन्ये यथा रज्जुर्भुजङ्गमम् ।
(v) The relation of jīva and Brahman : 11-12b
These individual beings are not different¹ from the
Ātman, neither is the world² different from it; for, creating
by its own power³, it is non-different (from its creation),
5. 'K' suggests that, since creation takes place for the enjoyment
of the individual beings, it is withdrawn by the creator also
for the rest of the individual beings. Since the creator, being
the substratum of the phenomenon, is not affected by the
duality of pain and pleasure and for him creation is sportive,
he needs no rest.
6. Anādi of the text means beginningless. The idea is that crea-
tion and dissolution do not take place in time, since time
itself is a part of creation. The world process is thus conceiv-
ed to be an incessant flow. 'K' suggests that the world has
a beginning with reference to the particular, i. e., individual
manifestations only, viz a son is born and has a beginning
but the universal, i e., the process of regeneration has no
beginning.

1. The individuals are considered here in the relationship of the
   constituents and the constituted, i e., aṁśāṁśibhāva, and are
   thus essentially non-different from, i. e., identical with Ātman,
   reality.
2. The world too is conceived to be non-different from Ātman,
   since the creator and the creation are understood to be in the
   relationship of cause and effect, i. e., kāryakāraṇabhāva. This
   relationship as well as the above one is accepted by the
   Bhedābheda school of the vedānta system of Indian philosophy.
3. According to the Bhedābheda-vedānta philosophy, the creator
   creates the universe by its own power and therefore is not
   essentially different from its creation, just as the sunshine is
   not essentially different from the sun.
   Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment 31
   just as gold⁴ is non-different from (its products such as)
   ear-ring etc.; according to others, however, it creates through
   nescience as the rope gives rise to the snake.⁵ (11-12b)
   Now the author is presenting the whole picture of the creator and
   the creation; the relationship of the creator, the created beings and the
   world is that of identity in difference—identity with reference to
   substance and diversity with reference to form, just as ornaments made
   of gold are gold in substance and are yet called by different names such
   as ear-ring, bracelet, etc. The visible differences belong to the pheno-
   menon and not to the reality manifested through it. However, as it
   would be clear from the analogy of gold and ornaments, creation in this
   view involves a transformation of reality.
   The other view regarding the relationship of the creator and the
   creation does not accept the phenomenon to be a transformation of
   reality, rather it conceives it as an illusion based on individual nescience.
   According to this view the nature of phenomenon is essentially illusory,
   even though the substratum of the phenomenon is real So phenomenon
   is only an appearance of the real caused by the limitations of individua-
   lity. The stock example of, 'the snake appearing in a piece of a rope
   due to darkness', is a popular analogy to explain this particular relation-
   ship. Here, the non-existence of the snake is realised in the existence
   of the rope; similarly the true significance of appearance is realised only
   in the experience of reality.
   (vi) भौतिकसृष्टिः
   आत्मनः पूर्वमाकाशस्ततो वायुस्ततोऽनलः ॥१२॥
   अनलाज्जलमेतस्मात्पृथिवी समजायत ।
   महाभूतान्यमून्येषा विराजो ब्रह्मणस्तनुः ॥१३॥
4. Gold is not different from the ornaments made out of it, as
   far as the substance is concerned, and yet, they are different
   in form with reference to each other. So the creation is not
   different with reference to the creator, the perceptible diffe-
   rence being relative in the manifest world.
5. As the rope, acting as the substratum gives rise to the illusion
   of the snake appearing in it; so also, through ignorance and
   the power of illusion, Ātman, acting as the substratum, gives
   rise to the illusion of the phenomenon of duality.

32 Treatment of Svara
ब्रह्मा ब्रह्माणमसृजत्तस्मै वेदान्प्रदाय च।
भौतिकं वेदशब्देभ्यः सर्जयामास तेन तत् ॥१४॥
तदाज्ञयाऽसृजद् ब्रह्मा मनसैव प्रजापतीन्।
तेम्यस्तु रेतसी सृष्टिः शरीराणां निरूप्यते ॥१५॥
(vi) The physical manifestation : 12c-15
From Ātman¹ emanated, ether², first³ of all, followed⁴
by air, fire, water and earth in their respective order. These
are the great elements⁵, and they constitute the body of
Brahman, then called viraj⁶. (12c-13)
Having elucidated the metaphysical basis of reality and appe-
arance, the creator and the creation and their mutual relationship, now
the author proceeds to describe the order of physical emanation and
the manifestation of nature etc. In Indian philosophy, the manifest
phenomenon as perceived through the five senses is classified into the
five basic elements, called mahābhūta-s, which term is translated here
as 'great elements'. These elements are not necessarily the equivalents
of the English words ether etc. used here; but, since there is roughly a
similar tradition in Greek philosophy, these terms have tentatively been
considered acceptable. However, in essence ākāśa means that objective

1. That is because ātman has been spoken of as being the cause
   of the phenomenon. Ātman is obviously taken as synonymous
   with Brahman.
2. Ākāśa is translated as ether, because that is the general prac-
   tice; and also because there is no other proper word for it in
   the English language.
3. Ether is the first evolute from which other elements evolve
   later in their respective order.
4. The word 'tataḥ' of the text, means 'thereafter'. The doctrine
   of the physical evolution, represented here, holds that from
   Ātman or Brahman emanates ether, from ether air, from air fire,
   from fire water and from water is evolved earth; and accor-
   dingly, they are dissolved back one by one unto Brahman.
5. Mahābhūta-s, the great elements represent the gross manifes-
   tation of Brahman before pañcīkaraṇa (amalgamation).
6. Brahman, as conditioned by these universal elements is known
   as virāj. The word virāj literally means luminous, splendour.
   It is held in this doctrine that Brahman, having created the
   five universal elements, entered into them The physical
   world has no existence apart from the intelligent principle;
   and thus, no real difference is conceived between the creator
   and the creation.

Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment
Brahman⁷ created Brahmā and having handed over the
veda-s⁸ to him, it caused⁹ him to create the physical world
reality, which is the substratum of sound perceived by the ear; vāyu
denotes the element through which the perception of touch takes place;
anala (also called agni or tejas etc.) is the element that is responsible for
the perception of colour; jala is the element that is responsible for the
perception of taste; and pṛthivī is the element that produces the per-
ception of odour. Thus these elements are conceived on the basis of
five types of perception to which they respectively correspond. These
elements are quite different from the elements of modern science.
Then, these elements produce the physical universe, which is
essentially perceptive and has consciousness as its basis, by the process
of permutation and combination in various proportions, known as
pañcīkaraṇa in vedāntic parlance. That, however, involves too great a
divergence from the subject of this text.
This physical universe is conceived to constitute a body, a form,
to Brahman, the formless; who therefore is given a different name viz.,
Virāj to distinguish it from the unconditioned Brahman.
Brahman, conditioned by the five universal elements, called Virāj
is not yet in the position to create the physical world; since the elements
are in the state of equilibrium before the process of Pañcīkaraṇa takes
place, i.e., before they intermingle in ratio and proportion. But the
act of creation is possible through Brahman only while it is conditioned
by the universal elements in terms of physical manifestation, and by the
universal nescience, in terms of psychological manifestation. Thus,
even though the author has not clearly stated in the text, it is implied
7. 'K' identifies Virāj with the four faced Brahmā of the purāṇā-s
and thus attributes the act of creation directly to the
unconditioned Brahman, 'Brahmā virāḍrupam Brahmaṇam catur-
mukham asṛjat'. However, this does not accord well with the
metaphysical doctrine of Bhedābheda system.
8. Brahmā is a symbolic figure of the puranic mythology, having
four faces. Each of his faces is supposed to give expression to
each of the four vedas. He is considered to symbolise the
creative aspect of Brahman in the trinity of Brahmā, Viṣṇu
and Śiva, the last two being responsible for the maintenance
of the creation and the dissolution of the phenomenon.
Obviously, the author is presenting a synthesis of the vedic
and the puranic traditions.
9. That is how Brahman is the final cause, though it is Brahmā
who actually creates, yet he is inspired by Brahman to do so.
3

34 Treatment of Svara
through¹⁰ the words of the veda-s. (14)
By his¹¹ command Brahmā created through¹² his
mind, the Prajapati-s¹³, and from them the seminal¹⁴
creation of bodies is being expounded.¹⁵
in the context that Brahman, as conditioned by the five universal
elements created Brahmā, the progenitor of all the beings and the
physical world inhabited by them. However, the Veda proclaims Virāj
to be the first progeny of Puruṣa; Tasmād Virāḍajāyata (Rv. 10.90.5).
But then in vedic mythology, Brahmā possibly has no such place. Thus
obviously, our author has synthesised the concept of Virāj and Brahmā
in this doctrine. In this context Brahman is not differentiated from
Virāj, which has been spoken of as Saguṇa-brahman in the puranic
parlance. Indeed, perhaps that is why 'S' has equated Brahman of this
verse with Īśvara of the vedānta philosophy.
10. The creation takes place through the word, as codified in the
vedas. The vedas in the Indian tradition are considered to
be 'apauruṣeya', i.e., literally, beyond human authorship. Since
creation and dissolution in the author's view form a unitary
movement, the creation takes place through the word of the
vedas which, through the process of association give rise to
the form as ideas in the universal mind, which then creates
the world according to those ideas, the latent seeds.
11. That is, Virāj; it is notable that here 'K' also interprets it as
such.
12. That is, by his will power.
13. Literally, the word prajāpati means the lord of creatures,
of all the created beings. There have been many prajāpati-s
and their number differs from seven to twenty-one, according
to different accounts. Prajāpati originally seems to be a god
of the vedic hymns who was later raised to the status similar
to that of Brahmā in the sūtra-s. But later in the purāṇa-s, the
word prajāpati became more or less an appellation of the
founders of the great dynasties such as Marīci, Atri, Aṅgiras,
Pulastya, etc. However, in the present context prajāpati-s are
conceived as the mental progeny of the creator, Brahmā.
14. Retas, literally means 'semen', but the expression is metaphorical
and signifies the product of copulation, i. e., the creation that
takes place as a result of the opposites coming together.
Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment 35
(vii) भौतिकदेहभेदाः
स्वेदोद्भेदजरायुण्डहेतुभेदाच्चतुर्विधम् ।
देहं यूकाऽऽदिनः स्वेदादुद्भेदात्तु लताऽऽदिनः ॥१६॥
जरायोर्मानुषादीनामण्डात्तु विहगादिनः ।
(viii) मानुषदेहाभिधाने हेतुः
तत्र नादोपयोगित्वान्मानुषं देहमुच्यते ॥१७॥
(vii) Types of physical bodies : 16-17b
The body is of four types, depending on the nature of
its cause, viz., sweat, sprout, womb¹ and egg; such as louse
etc., from sweat, creeper etc., from the sprout, human being
etc., from the womb and birds etc., from the egg.² (16-17b)
(viii) The purpose of dealing with the human body: 17cd
Of the above (four), the human body¹, being suitable
for (the manifestation of) nāda is dealt with (here). (17cd)
The Āyurvedic classification of the manifestation of life is substan-
tially different and quite comprehensive. It comprehends life under
three main heads, viz., jaṅgama (animals), audbhid (plants) and pārthiva
(minerals). The jaṅgama (animal class) is subdivided into jarāyuja,
aṇḍaja, svedaja (all the three given in the text) and udbhijja, the last of
which comprises of animals in hybernation etc. that remain unmanifest
for a certain period of time concealed in the soil, and develop only
during particular seasonal conditions. The author has identified the
vegetable kingdom with udbheda rather than the fourth category of
animals spoken of in the Āyurvedic tradition. The inclusion of creepers
etc. under types of bodies does not seem to be as scientific as the udbhijja
class of Āyurveda. The author's classification, however, appears to
follow the puranic tradition.

1. The word jarāyu of the text precisely means the outer layer
   of foetus, and technically refers to the viviparous creatures.
2. Ad. ed of S. R. reads "aṇḍatta" instead of "aṇḍattu" wherein
   tu seems to have been used as a conjunctive.
3. That is why the author has introduced this section on human
   embodiment in a musical treatise. Also, this provides the
   reason for dealing with the human body only from out of the
   four types.

36 Treatment of Svara
(ix) जीवस्य गर्भाशयेऽवतरणम्
क्षेत्रज्ञः स्थित आकाशे आकाशाद्वायुमागतः ।
वायोर्धूमं ततश्चाभ्रमभ्रान्मेघे ऽवतिष्ठते ॥१८॥
आहृत्य ऽऽप्यायितो प्रस्तरसो ग्रीष्मे च भानुभिः ।
भानुर्मेघे घनरसं निधत्ते तं वलाहकः ॥१९॥
यदा वर्षति वर्षेण सह जीवस्तदा भुवः ।
वनस्पत्योषधीर्जाताः संक्रामत्यविलक्षितः ॥२०॥
ताम्यो ऽन्नं जातमनं तत्पुरुषैः शुक्लतां गतम् ।
शुद्धार्तवाया योषाय निषिक्तं स्मरमन्दिरे ॥२१॥
सहार्तवेन शुद्धं चेद्गर्भाशयगतं भवेत् ।
जीवकर्मप्रेरितं तद् गर्भमारभते तदा ॥२२॥
(ix) The descent of jīva into the womb : 18-22
The self-aware¹ intelligence, the resident² of ether,
descends into air; and from air into smoke, from smoke into
The embodied self, i. e., the self-aware intelligence, has already
been spoken of as having two bodies, subtle and gross. Here the pro-
cess of the physical, i. e., gross embodiment is being described, and
therefore, the thought-body is taken for granted to be existent in the
form of etheric vibrations as the residue of past incarnation of the
individual self or soul who is called kṣetrajña, which signifies intelligence
involved in the self-conscious individual being.

1. The word kṣetrajña of the text literally means the knower of
   the field, i. e., the observer, the witness of the field of con-
   sciousness. The word kṣetra also means an abode: so, by
   implication the word signifies the body. Kṣetrajña thus means
   the soul or intelligence as conditioned by self-consciousness; and
   here, the word is used in this technical sense. cf. Bh. Gītā XII.
   1 & 2. "This organism, oh! Arjuna, is named as kṣetra (the
   field); and the one who is aware of it is called as kṣetrajña (the
   perceiver of the field) by the experts." (13.1)
   Thus kṣetra and kṣetrajña may roughly be understood as
   the field of consciousness and consciousness subsisting in the
   awareness of the field. The deeper significance of these terms
   would be clear from the next verse.
   "Oh, Arjuna, understand that I am the kṣetrajña (intelli-
   gence) in all the kṣetra-s (organisms). The comprehension of
   the body and the soul is considered to be my knowledge."
2. It is assumed that thought body is made of subtle matter in
   Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment 37
   cloud-formation³ and from the cloud-formation into the
   cloud. (18)
   The sun, being satiated⁴ by the oblations and surround-
   ed by vapours drawn by its rays in the summer,⁵ confines
   the waters in the clouds. When the clouds release the waters,
   the self-conscious intelligent being,⁶ descending with the
   showers, transfers itself imperceptibly⁷ to the terrestrial
   growth of trees and herbs. This⁸ (vegetation) becomes food;
   and when eaten by men, is transformed into semen; which,
   being sprinkled in the temple⁹ of love in the body of a young
   The process of the descent of the thought-embodied intelligence
   into the physical human organism follows the general pattern of the
   evolution of the five great elements, viz., from ether to air, from air to
   fire as associated with smoke, and from fire to water as associated with
   cloud, and from water to earth, through vegetation. Having entered
   the vegetation it remains a matter of course for it to reach an appro-
   priate womb for its physical encasement.
3. Abhra of the text signifies a cloud-formation devoid of water,
   so to say, a combination of smoke, light and air, while Megha
   signifies the cloud proper full of water.
4. In the Indian tradition the sun is offered oblations in the
   sacrificial fire. The gods, in this view, have nothing to eat in
   their heavenly abode and have to be nourished through the
   sacrificial oblations offered by human beings.
5. This is significant in the context of Indian climate. The sun
   is supposed to draw the waters of the Indian ocean in
   summer through the sun's rays that fall directly upon it and
   collect them in the clouds, and this is a statement of a geo-
   graphical fact, the phenomenon of monsoon.
6. Jīva is conceived to be pure intelligence conditioned by self-
   consciousness.
7. Since consciousness is not an object of sense perception, the
   the journey of the soul from the thought body to the physical
   body is imperceptible outwardly
8. What is notable here is that the self-aware intelligence or, in
   other terms, the individual soul can never keep an identity
   without a physical vehicle. So in fact the whole journey is a
   process of the movement from a purely ideal body to a
   physical one. Thus it is also a process of evolution or mani-
   festation from the subtle to the gross. Food also is a vehicle
   for the self-enclosed consciousness and so is semen into which
   it is transformed.
9. The temple of love spoken of here refers metaphorically to the
   vagina.

Left Page

38 Treatment of Svara
ग. पिण्डोत्पत्तावायुर्वेदानुसारि निरूपणम्
(i) गर्भस्य वृद्धिक्रमः
द्रवत्वं प्रथमे मासि कललाख्यं प्रजायते ।
द्वितीये तु घनः पिण्डः पेशीषढ्नमर्बुदम् ॥२३॥
पुंस्त्रीनपुंसकानां स्युः प्रागवस्थाः क्रमादिमाः ।
तृतीये त्वङ्कुराः पञ्च कराङ्घ्रिशिरसो मताः ॥२४॥
woman in her proper course¹⁰, on entering the uterus, if¹¹
pure, unites with ovum: and then, being¹² impelled by the
accumulated residual action of the individual, it begins to
develop into the foetus. (19-22).
C. Genesis : The physiological viewpoint
(i) The development of the embryo : 23-41
In the first month a gelatinous substance (called kalala)
comes into being; in the second a hardened mass in the form
Now, the author goes on to describe the various stages through which
the embryo develops during the entire period of pregnancy and connect-
ed matters. From a comparative study of the monumental works of
Indian medicine and surgery by Caraka and Suśruta, it appears that our
10. Literally, śuddhārtava means pure menstrual discharge. This
refers to the suitable period of the monthly course, i. e., the
particular days after the menses, considered as opportune for
the union of the sperm and the ovum. But, more than that,
the śuddhārtava of the text refers to the ideal physical fitness
of a woman for conceiving a child. The test for the required
purity of the blood of the menstrual flow as quoted by 'K' is
that it should be of the colour, as red as the solution of lac or
its spots on cloth should be capable of being washed clean.
The word ārtava technically means the catamenial fluid.
11. The semen should also be of a certain standard. As, 'K'
quotes, semen to be fit for procreating should be strong,
heavy, viscous, sweet and profuse.
12. According to the Hindu view of life, fertilisation of a sperm
and an ovum is not a mechanical process, but the soul destin-
ed to be embodied in the foetus is the intelligent force guided
by its residual action (Karma), without which no conception
can materialise.

Right Page

Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment 39
अङ्गप्रत्यङ्गभागाश्च सूक्ष्माः स्युर्युगपत्तदा ।
विहाय श्मश्रुदन्तादीञ्जन्मानन्तरसंभवान् ॥२५॥
एषा प्रकृतिरन्या तु विकृतिः संमता सताम् ।
चतुर्थे व्यक्ता तेषां भावानामपि जायते ॥२६॥
पुंसां शौर्यादयो भावा भीरुत्वाद्यास्तु योषिताम् ।
नपुंसकानां संकीर्णा भवन्तीति प्रचक्षते ॥२७॥
मातृजं चास्य हृदयं विषयानभिकाङ्क्षति ।
अतो मातुर्मनोऽभीष्टं कुर्याद्गर्भसमृद्धये ॥२८॥
तां च द्विहृदयां नारीमाहुर्दौहृदिनीं बुधाः ।
अदानाद्दोहदानां स्युर्गर्भस्य व्यङ्गताऽऽतयः ॥२९॥
मातुर्यद्विषयालाभास्तदार्तो जायते सुतः ।
गर्भः स्यादर्थवान्भोगी दोहदाद्राजदर्शने ॥३०॥
अलङ्कारेषु ललितो धर्मिष्ठस्तापसाश्रमे ।
देवतादर्शने भक्तो हिंस्रो भुजगदर्शने ॥३१॥
गोधाऽशने तु निद्रालुर्बली गोमांसभक्षणे ।
माहिषे शुकरक्ताक्षं लोमशं सूयते सुतम् ॥३२॥
प्रबुद्धं पञ्चमे चित्तं मांसशोणितपुष्टता ।
षष्ठे ऽस्थिस्नायुनखरकेशरोमविविक्तता ॥३३॥
बलवणौ चोपचितौ सप्तमे त्वङ्गपूर्णता ।
पाल्यन्तरितहस्ताभ्यां श्रोत्ररन्ध्रे विधाय सः ॥३४॥
उद्विग्नो गर्भवासादास्ते गर्भाशयान्वितः ।
स्मरन्पूर्वानुभूताः स नानाजातीश्च यातनाः ॥३५॥
मोक्षोपायमभिध्यायन्वर्तते ऽभ्यासतत्परः ।
अष्टमे त्वक्स्मृती स्यातामोजश्चेतच्च हृद्द्रवम् ॥३६॥
शुद्धमापीतरक्तं च निमित्तं जीविते मतम् ।
पुनरम्बां पुनर्गर्भं चञ्चलं तत्प्रधावति ॥३७॥