प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

I, B] UPANAYANA RITUAL 269
married men, if they wanted to prosecute further
studies under a new teacher.¹ It was thus essentially
an educational ritual and bore some resemblance to the
formality of the admission procedure in modern schools
and colleges. In the course of time, however its signi-
ficance changed. It was felt necessary that the services
of the whole Aryan community should be conscripted for
the preservation of the Vedic literature which had grown
to considerable dimensions in the course of centuries;
Upanayana and Vedic studies were therefore made
obligatory for all. If it was not performed in time, it
was declared that the person would lose his Aryan status
and become unfit for marriage and social intercourse.
This threat no doubt helped the spread of Vedic learning
and gave an impetus to primary education, which was
in later times presupposed by Vedic studies; but it
also tended to transform this educational function into
a bodily (śārīrika) ritual. It began to be argued that it
should be performed even in the case of dumb and
deaf persons in order to render them eligible for
marriage.² Some late Smṛiti writers felt that the
ritual was primarily for the purification of the body;
they have therefore recommended that it should be
repeated in case the body is defiled by the bite of a
1 Ch. Up. V. II. Here, as a special case, King Aśvapati excu
the formality of Upanayana before beginning to teach his distin-
guished Brāhmaṇa pupils. The latter, however, had come ready for
the Upanayana. Cf. :—
ते ह समित्पाणयः पूर्वाह्णे प्रतिचक्रमिरे । तान्हानुपनीयैव एतदुवाच ।
2. See VMS, p. 361. The difficulty created by the impossibility
of the recitation of Vedic hymns by a deaf and dumb person was got
over by the theory that they may be recited by the teacher on behalf
of the dumb student. बटुपठनीयानां मंत्राणामाचार्य प्रत्येकं पाठो विधीयते ।
Ibid. Some writers like Śaṅkha-Likhita however did not agree with
this view ; cf. नोन्मत्तमूकान्संस्कुर्यात् । Quoted in VMS., p. 406

270 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
dog or a jackal.¹ And if the holy Brahmana can be
rendered holier by this Saṁskāra, why should it fail
to perform a similar miracle in the case of other
inanimate objects ? In medieval times the custom
therefore arose of performing this ceremony over the
holy Pippal tree in order to make it holier.² All these,
however, are later anomalies that crept into society
when the original purpose of Upanayana was being
gradually forgotten.
Its Antiquity : The antiquity of this ritual goes
back to prehistoric times. It existed in the Indo-
Iranian period and is clearly presupposed by the
Ṛigveda [X. 109, 5; III. 8. 4 and 5]. The Atharva-
veda describes it in detail and attributes the
proper functioning of society and nature to its
mysterious efficacy.³ Details about the student's
life and paraphernalia, more or less similar to those
given in Smṛitis, are to be seen in several passages of
the Brāhmaṇa literature.⁴ In the early period, the
ritual was a simple one ; even a verbal acceptance by
the teacher was sufficient.⁵ For a long time the father
himself acted as the teacher (Br. Up., V. 2.1 ; VI. 2.9).

1. Cf. Śātātapa, Paiṭhīnasi and Yama quoted in VMS.,
   p. 545-7.
2. An inscription from Karnatak refers to a Brahmana, per-
   forming this ceremony on the four Aśvatha trees planted by him in
   a temple garden in 1358 A.D. E.C., III, Malavalli No. 28.
3. ब्रह्मचर्येणं तपसा राजा राष्ट्रं विरक्षति । XI. 5. 17.
   ब्रह्मचर्येण कन्या युवानं विन्दते पतिम् । XI. 5. 18.
   ब्रह्मचर्येण तपसा देवा मृत्युमपाघ्नत । XI. 5. 19.
   स दाधार पृथिवीं दिवं च ॥ XI. 5. 1.
   See also, VI. 138.
4. Tai. S., VI, 3, 10, 5; Sat. Br., XI, 5, 4, (here we have a
   detailed description of the Upanayana); Go. Br., I. 2, 1-8 (here we have
   several interesting reasons for the different rules of Brahmacharya).
5. वाचा ह स्मैव पूर्वमुपयति । Br. Up., VI. 2.7.

I, B] UPANAYANA RITUAL 271
Who were eligible for it ? Brahmanas, Kshatriyas
and Vaishyas were eligible for the Upanayana and Vedic
study. They are collectively called Dvijas, because
they were all believed to get a second birth, a spiritual
one, at the time of the Upanayana. When the ritual
became obligatory, it seems to have been regularly
performed by all these castes for several centuries.
Smritis give detailed rules about the different kinds
of girdles, staffs, sacred threads, etc. which were
prescribed for the members of the various castes.
Details about these minor variations would not have been
evolved if the ritual had not been a general one among
the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas. In the course of
time, however, Vedic studies fell into background, partly
owing to the setback which the Vedic religion received
by the rise of the Upanishadic, Jain and Buddhist
movements, and partly by the development of other
branches of knowledge in the Hindu community itself.
Upanayana then began to fall into disuetitude among
the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas, with whose professions
in subsequent life Vedic studies were but remotely
connected. This happened at about the beginning of
the Christian era, when the theory that only the
Brahmanas and Shudras exist in the Kali age seems to
have gained ascendancy¹. Kshatriyas and Vaishyas

1. Bhāsa (3rd century A. D.) and Daṇḍin (7th century A. D.)
   regarded the sacred thread as an insignia of a Brahmana and not of a
   Dvija. Cf :—
   यज्ञोपवीतेन ब्राह्मणश्चीवरेण रक्तपटः । Avimāraka, Act V.
   भवदंसोपनीतं यज्ञोपवीतं भूसुरभावं द्योतयति ।
   Daśakumāracharit, 2nd Chap.
   Cf also Raghuvamśa, XI, 64.
   An inscription however shows that the Upanayana of the Hoysala
   King Narasimha III, who was a Kshatriya, took place in his 9th year
   on 25-2-1255. It appears that even when the ritual had gone out of .
   vogue among the Kshatriyas in general, it continued among the royal
   families.

272 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App.
were levelled down to the position of the Shudras,
primarily because they were not performing the Upa-
nayana ceremony and wearing the Sacred Thread.
Probably in respectable Kshatriya ruling families, the
ritual continued to be performed down to the 13th
century, but their number was very small. The testi-
mony of Alberuni (I, p. 125) shows that the Vedic
education had practically died down among the
Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas before the 11th century
A.D. In the earlier centuries of the Christian era, the
ritual was performed by these castes as an unmeaning
formality, as is the case with the Brahmanas now.
Later on it was discontinued. It may be noted in this
connection that it was not without difficulty that
Shivaji could succeed in getting a Brahmana Pandit
from Benares, ready to perform the Upanayana for
him at the age of 44.
The Age at the Upanayana : The Upanayana
marks the beginning of the Vedic education, which in
several respects resembled the secondary education of
modern times. Naturally therefore some age between
8 and 12 was regarded as suitable for it. Usually our
texts prescribe that the Upanayana should be performed
in the 8th year in the case of a Brahmana, in the 11th
year in the case of a Kshatriya and in the 12th year in
the case of a Vaishya. No particular sanctity was
attached to these ages¹ ; for, some writers like
Baudhāyana regard any age between 8 and 16 as
suitable for the Upanayana². There was no idea of

1. The selection of these particular ages seems to have been due
   to the rather fortuitous circumstance of the syllables of each line of
   the Sāvitrī Mantras of these castes being 8, 11 and 12 respectively. Cf.
   ब्राह्मणादिवर्णसंबंधिनां छंदसां पादाक्षरसंख्यैरब्दैरुपनयनस्य विधेः ( कार्य-
   वात् ) । Medhātithi on Manu, II. 38. Cf. also VMS., p. 344.
2. अष्टमे आयुष्कामं नवमे तेजस्कामं••••त्रयोदशे मेधाकामं चतुर्दशे
   पुष्टिकामं••••षोडशे सर्वकामम् । Bau. Gr. S., II. 5. 5.

I, B] UPANAYANA RITUAL 273
emphasising the intellectual superiority of the
Brahmanas¹, when a lower age was prescribed for their
Upanayana. Family traditions in Brahmanical circles
facilitated Vedic educatiou at an early age ; such was
not the case with Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. Brahmana
boys could very often begin their Vedic education at
home ; Kshatriya and Vaishya boys had necessarily to
leave their families and go to a Brahmana teacher for
that purpose ; the age of 11 or 12, when boys are to
some extent able to look after themselves, was there-
fore found convenient for them. It is interesting to
note that the Brahmana boy Śvetaketu also performed
his Upanayana at the age 12 and immediately went
to stay with his preceptor for prosecuting his education
(Ch. Up. VI. 1-2). It would therefore appear that
even in Brahmanical families, the Upanayana was post-
poned to a later age when it was to be followed by the
separation of the boy from his family. It is the similar
necessity of sending the boys outside to a town or a
city that compels villagers of our time to begin their
wards' secondary education at about the age of 11 or
12. In cultured Brahmana families, which were very
keen about the quick progress of their sons, the
tradition was to perform the Upanayana and begin the
Vedic studies even earlier than the 8th year². This
practice is similar to that of many well-to-do and
cultured city families, which begin the secondary or
English education of their wards at about the age of
6 or 7. Smṛitis have therefore naturally given much
latitude about the age at the Upanayana in order to
suit the circumstances and convenience of the different

1. As supposed by Keay (p. 29) and Das (p. 72).
2. सप्तमे ब्राह्मणमुपनयीत पंचमे ब्रह्मवर्चसकामम् । J. Gr., S., I. 12.
   Cf. also G. D. S., 1. 1. 7; M. Gr. S., 1. 22. 1; Vâ. Gr. S., 6.
   18

274 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App.
types of families in society¹. They however felt that
it ought to begin at about the age of 12, for the powers
of mind that were required for the Vedic studies could
be properly cultivated and developed only at an
early age. The commencement of the Vedic studies
after the age of 16 has been definitely discouraged
by them,² for it was rightly apprehended that a boy
who begins his studies at such an advanced age may
find them too tedious, his mind having already become
susceptible to sensuous attractions.
Critical Survey of the Ritual: An educationalist
will find the survey of the Upanayana ritual very
interesting and instructive. The ritual opens with a
breakfast (which precedes even the bath), during which
it is the custom in many parts of the country for the
boy to share food with his mother in the same dish.
A breakfast before bath is unusual in Hindu rituals

1. A child of 6 or 7 could not recite with proper accent and
   pronunciation even the Sāvitrī verse; so it was recommended that in
   the cases of very early Upanayanas, the teaching of this Mantra
   should be postponed by about a year; Cf. तां ह स्मैतां पुरा संवत्सरे
   अन्वाहुः संवत्सरसंमिता वै गर्भाः । S. Br. XI. It may be noted in this
   connection that at a time when there was a prejudice against commit-
   ting the Vedic texts to writing and when grammar had not been
   evolved, not much preparation by way of primary education was
   necessary for commencing Vedic studies. They could therefore be
   begun even at the early age of 6 or 7.
   It is interesting to note that Smṛitis do not lay down any
   detailed rules about the astrological auspiciousness of the day of
   the Upanayana. These were introduced in medieval times.
2. नातिषोडशवर्षमुपनयीत प्रसृष्टवृषणो ह्येष वृषलीभूतो भवति ।
   J. Gr. S., 1. 12.
   The upper limit of 22 and 24 permitted for the Kshatriyas and
   Vaishyas is due simply to the doubling of their normal age. The
   readiness of Mitramisra, a 17th century writer, to permit Upanayana
   upto the age of 24, 33 and 36 seems to be due to the exigencies of the
   age, when some persons like Shivaji were performing the ritual,
   when reminded about it, or when it became absolutely necessary.
   VMS., 351.

I, B] UPANAYANA-RITUAL 275
and its occurrence at the Upanayana was obviously
intended to indicate that the earlier period of
unregulated childhood had come to an end and that
serious and disciplined life was now to follow.
Breakfast was followed by a shave,—an invariable
element in most of the Hindu religious observances.
The boy was then given a bath and offered a
Kaupīna¹. This was to remind him that the Upanayana
commenced a new epoch in his life from which dignity,
decorum and self-restraint could never be separated. A
girdle (mekhalā) was tied round his waist as a support for
Kaupīna. It was made of triple cord, the symbolism
being intended to foster the belief in the scholar that he
was being continuously encircled by the three Vedas².
The verses recited on the occasion of tying the girdle
informed the boy that his belt was a daughter of Faith
(Śraddhā) and a sister of the sages, possesed the power
of protecting his purity and chastity and would keep
him away from evil³. Hindu ideas of decorum
required that when engaged in religious duties, the
upper part of the body should be covered with a
piece of cloth⁴. On the occasion of the Upanayana the
young scholar was therefore offered an upper garment.
In the earliest period, when spinning and weaving were

1. Kaupīna denotes the small strip of cloth used by childrer
   to cover their private parts. It was usually discontinued
   at about the age of 12 when the boy was required to wear
   the full dhoti. Cf. Aśvalāyana quoted in VMS., p. 432
2. वेदत्रयेणावृतोऽहमिति मन्येत स द्विजः । अश्वलायन
   in VMS., p. 432
3. श्रद्धाया दुहिता तपसोधिजाता स्वसा ऋषीणां भूतकृतां बभूव ।
   A. V., VI. 138. 4.
   ऋतस्य गोप्त्री तपसश्चरित्री घ्नती रक्षांसि सहमानाऽरातीः ।
   Vā. Gr. S. 5.
4. स्नानं दानं तपो होमः स्वाध्यायः पितृतर्पणम् ।
   नैकवस्त्रो द्विजः कुर्याच्छ्राद्धभोजनसत्क्रियाः ॥
   Yogayājñavalkya in SCS., p. 299

276 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App.
probably unknown, a deer-skin was offered on the
occasion. The youth was asked to remember that the
lovely deerskin is symbolical of brahmavarchasam or
spiritual and intellectual preeminence and that its
constant use ought to urge him to attain reputation
as a man of character and scholarship¹. When
spinning and weaving became common, a piece of
cloth was offered to the boy on this occasion, spun
and woven in his own family just before the
ceremony². A survey of the Gṛihya-sūtras, which
describe the Upanayana ritual in detail, shows that
the investiture with the Sacred Thread did not form
part of the Upanayana ritual. The upper garment
that was offered to the boy was in lieu of the Sacred
Thread or rather its predecessor. This will be shown
in the Appendix D, where the whole history of the
Sacred Thread and its significance will be discussed in
details.
Presentation to Deities : Invested with the above
paraphernalia, the boy was taken to the sacred fire,
the earliest Indo-European deity known so far. He
was asked to offer a samidh (a piece of sacred fuel) to
the gleaming fire and the verses recited on the occasion
prayed that God Fire should be auspicious to the
young scholar and endow him with brilliance,
intelligence and vigour³, so that his scholarship and
strength should glow up like the resplendent flame of
fire. In order to intensify his piety, the boy was
then presented to a number of Vedic deities like Bhaga,
Yama, Aryamā and Savitrī. The last mentioned god
was charged with the special duty of protecting the

1. G. Br., I. 2. 1-3
2. वासः सद्यःकृत्वोतं । B. Gr. S., II. 5. 11
3. Cf. अयं ते इध्म आत्मा जातवेदः तेन वर्द्धस्व चेन्द्ध वर्द्धय चास्मान् ।
   Bh. Gr. S., I. 5.

I, B] UPANAYANA RITUAL 277
student from harm, disease and death¹. When this
presentation was over, the teacher assured his pupil
that he was thenceforward under divine protection²;
fortified by that consciousness, he should push forth
his studies without any apprehensions.
Standing on Stone : The next element in the
ritual is a symbolical one; the boy was asked to stand
on a stone and enjoined to be steadfast in the pursuit
of his studies³. Firm determination and singleness
of purpose are most essential for a successful
educational career and the necessity of cultivating them
was emphasised on the scholar's mind by this element
in the ritual.
Acceptance by the Teacher : The scholar was then
brought before his teacher who asked him whose Braha-
chārin⁴ (student) he was. The young boy naturally
replied to the preceptor that he was the latter's disciple.
The preceptor then used to correct him and asked
him to note that he was the pupil of gods Indra and
Agni, the most popular and powerful among the Vedic
deities⁵. When formally taking charge of the pupil
by seizing his right hand, the teacher used to announce
that he was doing so with the command and concur-
rence of God Savitṛi.⁶ The teacher then touched the

1. Cf. देव सवितेरेष ते ब्रह्मचारी स मा मृत । Aś. Gr. S., I, 20, 6
2. Śat Br., XI. 5, 4, 3.
3. Mā. Gr. S., I. 22. 12. Stone was also symbolical of strength:
   Bh. G. S. held that the significance of the ritual was to
   make the boy invulnerable. I. 8.
4. Brahma originally meant prayer; the original meaning
   of Brahmacharya was thus the period of study of the sacred prayers
   or the Vedic Mantras. Since chastity was usually observed in this
   period, the term came to acquire the secondary sense of a period of
   chastity as well. Brahmachārin was one who followed Brahmacharya
   discipline.
5. Cf. कस्य त्वं ब्रह्मचार्यसि । भवत इत्युच्यमाने इन्द्रस्य ब्रह्मचार्यसि
   अग्निरचार्यस्तव अहमाचार्यस्तव । Pā. Gr. S., II, 3.
6. Aś. Gr. S., I. 20, 4.

278 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App.
heart of his pupil and prayed that there should be a
perpetual and perfect accord between them.¹ All this
was intended to emphasise that the relations between the
teacher and the pupil were sacred and not mercenary
and progress in education was possible only if there
was complete harmony, sympathy and whole-hearted
communion between the teacher and the taught.
Teaching and Significance of the Savitri (Gayatri)
Mantra: Then followed the actual initiation of the
student in the Vedic studies, which was done by
teaching him a prayer to the sun (Sāvitrī-mantra);
this is popularly known as Gāyatrī-mantra on account
of its metre. This prayer, which every student and
householder had to recite morning and evening, runs
as follows:—
Tat savitur vareṇyām bhargo devasya dhīmahi Dhiyo
*yo naḥ prachodayāt.*²

1. H Gr. S., 1. 5. 11.
2. Early authorities like Pā. Gr. S., II. 3. 10 prescribe the
   same prayer to the sun for the students of all the castes. Later
   writers begin to prescribe a different Mantra for the Kshatriyas and
   the Vaishyas, probably influenced by the theory that Trishtubh
   metre is appropriate for the Kshatriya and the Jagatī for the Vaishya.
   The tradition however is not unanimous about these Mantras and
   may be taken to be unreliable as far as the early period is concerned.
   The following Mantras are prescribed by different authorities for the
   Kshatriya:—
   आ कृष्णेन रजसा वर्तमानो निवेशयन्नमृतं मर्त्यं च ।
   हिरण्येन सविता रथेन देवो याति भुवनानि पश्यन् ॥
   (According to Medhātithi on Manu, II. 38)
   हिरण्यपाणिः सविता विचर्षणिुरुभे द्यावापृथिवी अंतरीयते ।
   अपामीवां बाधते वेति सूर्यमभि कृष्णेन रजसा द्यामृणोति ॥
   (According to Nārāyaṇa on S. Gr. S. II. 5)
   The Mantras for the Vaishyas are said to be the following:—
   विश्वा रूपाणि प्रतिमुंचते कविः प्रासावीद्भद्रं द्विपदे चतुष्पदे ।
   वि नाकमख्यत्सविता वरेण्योऽनु प्रयाणमुषसो विराजति ॥
   (According to Medhātithi on Manu II. 38, Śātātapa and
   Laugākshī quoted in VMS., p. 430 and Aparārka on Yāj I. 15)
   P. T. Q.

I, B] UPANAYANA RITUAL 279
The prayer made to the sun in this Mantra is quite
appropriate for the student to whom it was first taught.
For a successful and brilliant career, what is most
essential for the student is the possession of an efficient
intellect. Health, wealth, good memory are all
desirable, but more important than them all is an
energetic and stimulating intellect; it is the power
conferred by the latter that has enabled man to
establish his supremacy over the Nature. It is
therefore quite appropriate that the prayer offered by
every Aryan, morning and evening, should urge the
sun to endow him with a brilliant intellect, and also
to give a proper stimulus to it. Mere intellect is not
(Continued from the last page)
युंजते मन उत युंजते धियः विप्रा विप्रस्य बृहतो विपश्चितः ।
वि होत्रा दधे वयुनाविदेक इन्मही देवस्य सवितुः परिष्टुतिः ॥
(According to Aś. Gr. S., III. 7 and Vā. Gr. S., 6)
हंसः शुचिषद्वसुरन्तरिक्षसद्धोता वेदिषदतिथिर्दुरोणसत् ।
नृषद्वरसद्दतसद्व्योमसदब्जा गोजा ऋतजा अद्रिजा ऋतम् ॥
(According to Nārāyaṇa on Manu, II. 38)

1. We have seen above how the Gāyatrī Mantra is naturally
   very appropriate for the student and the householder. It was later
   regarded as the very essence of the Vedas, and so quite mysterious
   meaning began to be read in it. Compare for instance the view of
   Bṛihat-Parāśara, IV 77-77 :—
   तत्प्रकृतिः स स्वांतं विकारो बुद्धिरेव च । तुरित्येतदहंकारं वशब्दं
   विद्धि पापहम् ॥ रेश्पर्शं तु णि रूपं च यं रसं गंधमत्र भम् । गो श्रोत्रं दे
   त्वचं वै त्र' चक्षुः स्य रसता तथा ॥ र्धी नासा च म वाचा च हि
   हस्तौ धि च पादद्वयम् । यो उपस्थ मुखं योऽन्यो नः खं प्रकारमारुतम् ॥
   चो। तेजो द् जलं याक्ष्मा गायत्र्यास्तत्त्वचिंतनम् ॥ So also about the
   significance of the Vyāhṛiti letters, Kūrmapurāna, uttarārdha, 14, 53
   and Ādi-Purāna, Adi, 53. 54-5 maintain that they denote Pradhāna,
   Purusha and Kāla ; or Vishṇu, Brahmā and Maheśa; or Satva, Rajas
   and Tamas respectively. Cf. प्रधानं पुरुषः कालो विष्णुर्ब्रह्मा महेश्वरः ।
   सत्वं रजस्तमस्तिस्रः क्रमाद् व्याहृतयः स्मृताः ।

280 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App.
sufficient if it has no capacity to receive proper
stimulation. The prayer is offered to the sun because
he was regarded as the one and universal source of
stimulation for both the animate and the inanimate
world.
Investiture with Staff; Its Significance :—With
the learning of the Gāyatrī Mantra, the student begins
his journey on the road to knowledge; he was there-
fore invested with a staff, which was a traveller’s
symbol in olden days. While accepting it, the student
prayed that with divine grace he may reach the goal
of his arduous journey¹. The staff exhorted the
student to become a careful watchman, charged with
the duty of guarding the Vedas.² It served the
purpose of making the student self-confident and
self-reliant, when he was out in the forest to collect
the sacred fuel, or travelling in darkness or entering
an unknown river or tank.³ It was also useful in
controlling the cattle of the teacher, if it was necessary
for the student to look after them.
Ceremonial Begging :—The student was expected to
maintain himself by begging cooked food everyday; so
the practice commenced on the day of the Upanayana.
The begging on the first day however was a ceremonial
affair, for the boy was to approach only such persons
as would not refuse his request. He would therefore
first go to his mother and then her sister and
then other relatives. In the modern Upanayana ritual
this ceremonial begging has assumed the proportions of
an imposing and stately procession, wending its way
through the main thoroughfares of the town or village.

1. Ma. Gr., S., 1. 22. 11.
2. Vā. Gr. S., 6.
3. Aparārka on I. 29.

I, B] UPANAYANA RITUAL 281
**Medhajanana Ritual :—**For three days after the
Upanayana, the student was said to remain in an
embryonic condition ; it was on the fourth day that
his spiritual birth took place. The preceptor, who
was now in the position of the father, then performed
the Medhājanana ritual for sharpening the memory,
intellect and grasping power of the student. Prayer
was offered that the student should be favoured with
an intelligence as attractive as cows, as vigorous as
studs and as brilliant as the solar rays ; it should be
equally effective in mechanical, material and spiritual
spheres.¹ Medhājanana ritual marked the termination
of the Upanayana ceremony.
**Significance of the ritual :—**At the time when the
significance of the Upanayana ritual and Mantras was
perfectly grasped, a very powerful impression must have
been produced on the mind of all the parties partici-
pating in the ceremony through the various suggestions
conveyed to them by the different elements in the ritual.
The ritual heralded the beginning of a new epoch in the
student's life, characterised by dignity, decorum and
discipline. The scholar was to regard himself as a
self-reliant traveller bound for the realm of knowledge;
the journey was to be long and arduous, but if there
was singleness of purpose, devotion to. studies and
perfect accord between him and his teachers, he would

1. त्वं नो मेधे प्रथमा गोभिरश्वेभिरागहि ।
   त्वं सूर्यस्य रश्मिभिस्त्वं नो असि यज्ञिया ॥
   यां मेधामृभवो विदुर्यां मेधामसुरा विदुः ।
   ऋषयो भद्रां मेधां यां विदुस्तां मय्या वेशयामसि ॥
   A. V., VI 108, 1, 3.
   Ribhus were famous for their mechanical skill and Asuras for
   their material civilization.

282 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App.
surely reach his goal. For, divine help and co-operation
were enlisted on his behalf; even death could not touch
him if he properly followed the rules of his order
(S. Br., XI. 2. 6; B. D. S., I. 3). His personality will
develop like that of Indra and his intelligence will
glow up like the refulgent flame of God Fire. He will
find nothing relating to his literary goal impossible if
he worked with faith, assiduousness and determination.
What better ideas can be conveyed to a young scholar
at the beginning of his education?
SECTION C
RITUALS DURING THE COLLEGE SESSION
Introduction :—Rituals were naturally prescribed
at the beginning and at the end of the annual school
session, as they were at the beginning and at the end of
the educational course. In pre-historic times the annual
session of schools and colleges began soon after the
commencement of the rainy season. when the sowing
operations were over and crops had began to sprout.
This usually happened by the full moon day of
Śrāvaṇa¹ (August); so the ritual of Chhandasām-
upākarman i. e. of 'gathering the Vedic knowledge',
was performed on that day. Later on it began to be
described as Śrāvaṇī². In pre-historic times Vedic
literature was not extensive; so a college term of

1. The full moon days of Āshāḍha, Śrāvaṇa and Bhādrapada
   are mentioned by different authorities as appropriate days for
   Upākarma. (Cf. Bau. Gr. S., III. 1. 2-3; Kh. Gr. S., III, 2, 14; Hi.
   Gr. S., II, 18, 1). Rainy season is receding back every century and
   it commences in different months in different provinces of India.
   Hence this divergence about the appropriate season for Upākarma.
2. Śrāvaṇī is a relatively modern name for the ritual. In early
   times it denoted the Nāga worship ritual performed on the full moon
   day of Śrāvaṇa; when this ritual went out of vogue, the name was
   transferred to the Chhandasām-Upākarma ritual, because that too
   was usually performed on the same day.

I, C] UPĀKARMA RITUAL 283
about five or six months was found to be sufficient for
mastering it. The ritual of Chhandasām-utsarjana, i. e.
the cessation of Vedic studies, was therefore performed
on the full moon day of Pausha or Māgha (February-
March). In later times when the Vedic literature
became very extensive, and more branches of learning
were developed like grammar, philology, logic,
philosophy and Dharmaśāstra, the duration of the
annual term was extended over practically the whole
year. Curiously enough, owing to the force of the
established tradition, the Utsarjana ceremony still
continued to be performed in February or March,
though the college studies did not cease at that time.
At present the ritual is not performed at its proper
time but combined with the Upākarma ritual. This
practice goes back to medieval times.
**Upakarma or Sravani; its Significance :—**The
statement that Śrāvaṇī denotes a ritual performed at
the beginning of the college session may appear fanciful
to the modern Hindu, who is accustomed to associate
it with the annual replacement of the sacred thread,
but there is ample and clear evidence to justify it.
Our authorities declare that the ritual was to be
performed only by the teacher along with his students
when they had reassembled at the beginning of the
session¹. It was believed that the presiding teacher
would get in the course of time as many students as
was the number of sesasums offered as oblations in
this ritual²; some texts lay down special formulas to be

1. अध्येष्यमाणाः अध्याप्यैरन्वारब्ध..........। Āś. Gr. S., 3.4.10.
   समारब्धेष्वन्तेवासिषु.... ...उपाकर्म कुर्वीत । सहान्तेवासिभिः
   ग्रामादभिनिष्क्रम्य........उत्सर्जनविधिः । Bau. Gr. S., III. 1. 3. ff.
2. स यावन्तं गणमिच्छेत्तावन्तस्तिलानातर्थफलेन जुहुयात् ।
   P. Gr. S., II. 10.

284 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App.
performed by teachers ambitious to have a large
number of scholars¹. In some places there was the
custom requiring the teacher to give a feast to his
students on the day of Śrāvaṇī². It would thus be
clear that the ritual of Śrāvaṇī was originally confined
only to teachers and students and was performed on
the opening day of the annual session.
Prevention of Wastage in Education :—Later on,
however, it came to be prescribed for the whole
community primarily to prevent wastage in education.
We are all aware how a large number of students
lose their study habits and forget a good deal of what
they had learnt in their schools and colleges, when
they settle down as householders pursuing their own
professions. The same thing happened in the past.
It was however regarded as a serious disaster in ancient
times, as the modern facilities of books and libraries
were then non-existent. In the course of time there-
fore educationalists began to feel that steps must be
taken to ensure that even householders would set apart
some time in the year for revising their studies. Some
of them, like Śvetaketu, advocated that they should
be asked to spend two months every year in their old
colleges for this purpose. The majority however felt
that it is impracticable to suggest to householders that
they should give up their professions for two months
every year in order to keep themselves in touch with
their studies³. They therefore proposed that the

1. अन्तेवासिनां योगमिच्छञ्जपं जपति....। Vā. Gr. S., 7.
2. सब्रह्मचारिणश्च उपसमेतान्भोजयेदाचार्यः J. Gr. S., I. 14.
3. निवेशे वृत्ते संवत्सरे द्वौ द्वौ मासौ समाहितः आचार्यकुले वसेद्भूयः
   श्रुतमिच्छन्निति श्वेतकेतुः । एतेन ह्यहं योगेन भूयः पूर्वस्माच्छ्रुतमकरव-
   मिति । तच्छास्त्रैर्विप्रतिषिद्धम् । निवेशे हि वृत्ते नैयमिकानि श्रूयन्ते ।
   Ā. D. S., I. 1. 2. 12.

I, C] UPĀKARMA RITUAL 285.
monsoon time should be devoted to the task of revising
their studies. They could easily do this at home, if
they only would set apart a little time for the work
every day. It was therefore decided to lay it down
that householders also should join the students in the
Srāvaṇī ritual and take a vow to revise their studies.
Students performing the Śrāvaṇī were to prosecute
their studies at their schools and colleges; householders
taking part in it were to revise them at home, devoting
special time for the purpose and observing the rules
of the student-life as far as practicable¹.
**Sravani Ritual; Its Critical Survey :—**When it is
remembered that Śrāvaṇī was a ritual performed by
teachers and students at the beginning of the college
session, and by others at the onset of the
monsoon when the annual period of revision of
studies commenced, we can well anticipate its nature
and details. The ritual differed with different Vedic
schools,² but there is one central idea common to them
all, viz., on the opening day, Vedic and sacrificial
deities should be offered oblations, presiding deities
over intellect, memory and imagination should be
propitiated, and a tribute of gratefulness should be

1. न मांसमश्रीयान्न श्राद्धम्। न लोमानि संहारयेत्।
   न स्त्रियमुपेयादृ तौ जायामुपेयात्। J. Gr. S., Upākarma section.
   2 Thus the followers of the Rigveda used to recite the opening
   and concluding verses of each of the ten books of their Veda. The
   followers of the Yajurveda used to offer oblations to all the Vedas,
   Itihāsa and Purāṇa and pay tribute to the celebrated scholars of
   their own school like Kṛishṇa Dvaipāyana, Vaiśampāyana, and Tittiri
   (the authors of the Veda), Ātreya, the author of the Pada-pāṭha,
   Kauṇḍinya, the vṛittikāra, Baudhāyana, the pravachanakāra,
   Āpastamba the Sūtrakāra and to other celebrities like Satyāshāḍha,
   Hiraṇyakeśin, Vājasaneya, Yājñavalkya, Bhāradvāja and Agniveśya
   [Bau. Gr. S., III. 1]. The followers of the Sāmaveda invoked the
   memory of their own doctors like Jaimini, Tālavakāra, Râṇāyani,
   Bhāguri, etc.

286 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App.
paid to the intellectual giants of the past, who have
enriched the national literature. It was a very happy
idea indeed to remind the students of the deep debt
of gratitude they all owed to the literary celebrities
of the past on the very opening day of the session.
When they paid tribute to them, their ambition was
naturally fired into imitating their glorious example.
They thus commenced their annual studies with zest,
vigour and ambition, hoping one day to equal the
ancients in their achievements. When the ritual
was extended to householders in later times, it
reminded them of their duty to be up-to-date in
their own branches of learning. It is a pity indeed
that the modern educational system has not got a
ceremony of similar import.
Sravani and the Sacred Thread :—The critical
reader may now naturally enquire as to the causes
that have led to the close association of Śrāvaṇī with
the change of the sacred thread. The renewal of the
sacred thread was a minor element in the ritual ; most
of our authorities do not even refer to it. At the time
of most of the Vratas (vows) and Sanskāras, a new
sacred thread, staff, girdle, etc., were to be worn by
students. Śrāvaṇī was no exception ; on this occasion
also they discarded their old sacred threads, staffs,
girdles, etc., and substituted them by new ones,—a pro-
cedure somewhat similar to that of the modern
student, who usually gets new clothes prepared when
he leaves home for joining his college. By a strange
irony of fate, the most insignificant element in this
ritual has now assumed an altogether disproportionate
importance and its real nature and significance have
been forgotten altogether.
Utsarjana Ritual : This was performed at the end
of the college term sometime in February or March.

I, D] SAMĀVARTANA RITUAL 287
The procedure was more or less the same as that on
the opening day. Respectful homage was once more
paid to the Vedic deities, mental and intellectual
powers and the literary giants of the past before the
students dispersed home from their schools or colleges.
SECTION D.
SAMĀVARTANA¹ OR CONVOCATION RITUAL
Who were eligible? Samāvartana or Snāna²
ceremony was performed at the end of the Brahma-
charya period to mark the termination of the education
course³. When however in the course of time, the origi-
nal nature and purport of the ritual were forgotten and
the Upanayana began to be regarded as an obligatory
and bodily Sanskāra, this ritual also came to be
performed in all cases, irrespective of the consideration
as to whether any educational course was followed by
the youth or not. In early times it was performed
when the education of the youth was over; marriage
usually followed, but by no means immediately. In
later times the ritual came to be performed as
a kind of necessary formality just before the
marriage, when it was settled.⁴ (VMS. p. 575)

1. Samāvartana literally means 'returning'; it refers to the
   return of the student to his home after finishing the course at the
   teacher's home.
2. This term refers to the bath given to the student on the
   occasion.
3. Some held that it should not be performed in the case of
   those who were not able to interpret the Vedic texts committed to
   memory by them; Cf. अन्यो वेदपाठी । न तस्य ज्ञानम् ।
   M. Gr. S., I. 2. 8.
4. In northern India, the custom was introduced to perform it
   immediately after Upanayana.

288 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App.
This of course was not the original idea. The
ritual was intended to correspond in a very great
degree to the modern convocation function. Only
those who have passed their examination are at present
admitted to the convocation ; only those who had
finished their education were in the beginning honoured
with the privilege of Samāvartana. Our authorities
prescribe no definite age for this ritual. The duration
of the student-life varied with different courses and
students, as has been already shown in Chapter IV ;
and so no fixed age could be prescribed for this ritual.
An interesting Preliminary : Samāvartana cere-
mony is as simple as it is significant. An auspicious
day was selected and the student was required to shut
himself up in a room throughout the morning. This
appears to be a queer procedure, but it was due to the
desire to save the sun the humiliation of being con-
fronted with a superior lustre. The belief was that
the sun can shine only with the lustre he borrows from
the Snātakas (graduates), who have completed their
education$^1$. What better compliment can be
conceived for edudation ?
The Procedure . The student came out of his room
at the midday, cleansed his mouth and shaved his
head and beard. He then relinquished his girdle
(mekhalā), deer-skin (ajina) etc., which were the
insignia of the student's order. The period of strict
discipline was now over and the teacher himself,
who had sternly refused him the use of a number
of luxuries, now came forward to offer them to him.
He himself gave him a bath in fragrant water. It
was followed by an offer of new clothes. Ornaments,

1. Cf. एतदहःस्नातानां ह वा एष एतत्तेजसा तपति तस्मादेनमेतद-
   हर्नाभितपेत्। Bh. G. S., II. 1. 8.