प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

VIII] PROFESSIONAL AND USEFUL EDUCATION 193
B. C.; they used to supply trained soldiers to kings
and receive in return from them lands, money, horses,
etc. by way of reward.¹ Targets of clay or stuffed
human figures were used to teach accurate aiming. A
9th century inscription from the Deccan also refers to
a military captain, who is described as a marvel in
training horses² ; it is not however known whether
this officer was conducting a private class or whether he
was a regular professor in a military college maintained
by the Rāshṭrakūṭa administration.
Conclusion :— The general impression left by the
literary and epigraphical evidence of the 1st millennium
A.D. is that a good deal of preliminary military train-
ing was given almost universally in all villages under
the aegius of the village Panchayats. Organised insti-
tutions for military training probably did not exist in
moffusil villages. Retired members of the state
hereditary forces and local experts used to organise
and manage military classes in their own villages,
which were attended by most of the able-bodied adults
in the locality. Further training was imparted by ad-
venturous captains and final touches were given after the
enlistment of the soldier in the state army in daily
drills. It would appear that the weakness of the
Hindu military machine lay in too much reliance being
placed upon the training received by soldiers as militia
men. This training, while quite sufficient to meet the
needs of local disturbances, was inadequate to with-
stand regularly trained armies.
Education of Princes :— A few words may be
conveniently said here about the education of princes.
In the early period we find kings sending their sons to

1. Mil. Pan., Vol. II, pp. 135-4
2. E. I., XIII, p. 187.
   13

194 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
distant centres of education like Taxila to receive
education there more or less like commoners. But
from about the 3rd century B. C. it became the usual
practice to establish special schools for the education
of the scions of the royal family.¹ Sons and wards of
ministers and high officers of the state were also
permitted to join these schools, as it was realised that
suitable companions and mutual competition were neces-
sary to ensure satisfactory results. The Royal School
was usually located in the vicinity of the capital. It
consisted of several spacious halls, each suitable for
its special purpose. Gymnasium, swimming pools and
extensive grounds for military exercises were provided.
Experts were recruited from all over the country
to teach different subjects. The curriculum included
a study of the Vedas and philosophy, but naturally only
such knowledge of these subjects was imparted as was
necessary for general culture. Special attention was
paid to the study of history, economics, politics,
administration, and civil and criminal law. Lectures
on these subjects were delivered usually in the afternoon,
the morning time being devoted to the athletic and
military exercises. Princes were expected to be experts
in the use of different arms like the sword, the lance
and the bow and arrow. Tournaments and hunting
parties were often organised to test their skill. Fine
arts like music and painting were also taught. Students
in these royal schools used to stay in the boarding
houses ; their parents used to go there occasionally to
see them and find out how they were progressing.
The school course terminated usually at the end of
the 16th year, when princes were allowed to marry.
Though after this time, they would usually leave the
boarding and begin to stay in the palace with their

1. Arthas'âstra, I, Kâdambarī, p. 149,

VIII] PROFESSIONAL AND USEFUL EDUCATION 195
family, their education would not terminate. Training in
actual administration would begin after this period and
last for about seven or eight years. At the age of 24
the education would become fully complete and
princes were then regarded as eligible to become heir-
apparents.
COMMERCIAL EDUCATION
General Condition of Commerce :—In the Vedic
age, the Aryans had a greater liking for the sword
than for the sclaes ; Paṇis who were then controlling
commerce are contemptuously spoken of in the
Vedas. Gradually however when there remained
no fresh lands to conquer and acquire, the Aryans
must have turned to commerce. There was considerable
inter-provincial and foreign trade going on in the
Mauryan period. The maritime activity of ancient
India was considerable, and the trade with Rome
was very profitable to India during the early centuries
of the Christian era. Much of it however was in the
hands of Dravidians.
Scope of Commercial Education: We can get
some idea of the scope and nature of commercial
education from the training prescribed for the Vaishya
caste by Manu,¹ and the qualifications required by
Kauṭilya in the superintendent of commere.³ First
of all a knowledge of the varieties in quality of the
articles to be dealt with was imparted. Then came
commercial geography, for the trader was expected to
know the places where the different articles were
produced and the nature of the route by which they
had to be imported. Customs barriers in the period
we are discussing were numerous, and profits often
depended on selecting a route where the customs

1. IX, 381-882. 2. II, 16.

196 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
duties were relatively light. The needs of the people
of the various localities were to be carefully studied
with a view to find out possible markets. A knowledge
of different places and occasions of fares and
pilgrimages was also imparted as it was necssary in
this connection. The knowledge of the relative prices
of different articles in different provinces and countries
was also regarded as essential. Students were also
taught the exchange value of articles and also of
different currencies in various provinces and countries.
Those who intended to deal with inter-provincial or
inter-national trade were also given a working
knowledge of the necessary languages. Principles of
banking also formed part of the course. It is difficult
to determine the percentage of persons in the trading
community who received so wide an education. In
the hereditary trading families of high status, all this
education may have been a reality ; much of it must
have been unconsciously picked up by the youths
in the family shops. In the case of petty merchants
the extent of the education was probably determined
by the needs of the situation.
Agencies of Education :—During the first millen-
nium of the Christian era, most of the trades in the
country had formed very efficient guilds. One of them
is known to have maintained an Arts college in Karna-
tak during the 12th century A.D.¹ It is however
strange to find that the commercial guilds should not
have organised and managed commercial schools and
colleges. The reason however is not far to seek.
Down to the 5th century A.D. organised educational
institutions did not exist even for literary courses.
When they became fairly common in the country a
1 I.A., Vol. VIII, p. 195.

VIII] PROFESSIONAL AND USEFUL EDUCATION 197
few centuries later, commercial classes did not feel
it necessary to copy their example. By this time the
caste system had become hereditary and the training
in different trades and industries was usually imparted
in the family itself by the elders. Where there were
no elders in the family to train its children, they were
usually attached as apprentices to some neighbouring
trader or artisan. This apprenticeship system, which
will be soon described, rendered any regular schools of
the modern type unnecessary.
TRAINING IN ARTS AND CRAFTS.
**Introduction :—**We shall now consider the pro-
blems connected with the training of students in arts
and handicrafts like sculpture, artchitecture, painting,
carpentry, smithy, agriculture, etc. Our sources of
information are scanty, because neither Smṛitis, which
have written about education, nor foreign pilgrims like
Yuan Chwang and I-tsing who often throw consider-
able light on educational conditions, were interested
in the problems connected with the training in arts
and handicrafts.
Attitude towards Arts and Crafts : Early Period :—
It will be convenient at the outset to consider the general
attitude of society towards arts and crafts. In the early
period they were held in high esteem. Agriculture was
the general profession for the average Aryan. There
are prayers both in the Ṛigveda and the Atharvaveda for
success in various agricultural processes and operations.
It was not therefore a profession held in low
esteem as in later times. The carpenter was so impor-
tant a member of the Vedic society that the chief of
his guild was included among the twelve courtiers to
whose houses the king had to repair in person for
offering oblations at the time of his coronation. Ṛibhus,

198 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
originally human beings, were deified as a reward for
their extraordinary skill in manual arts. The same
was the case with Aśvins, who though originally human
princes, were later raised to the pantheon on account
of their medical skill.
Society's Attitude In later Days : In later
times however the attitude of society changed,
primarily due to the development of the rigid caste
system. The elevation of the Brahmanas and Ksha-
triyas was at the cost of the Vaishyas and Shudras,
who generally used to follow manual arts and handi-
crafts. As the status of the Vaishyas and Shudras
declined, the angle of vision to look at their usual
professions also changed. Manual arts and crafts
began to be held in low esteem. Carpenters and
doctors for example began to be regarded as children
of intercaste unions, which were disapproved by the
contemporary orthodox opinion. All this resulted in a
gradual boycott by Brahmanas and Kshatriyas of
manual arts and crafts. As the best intellect of the
community would not condescend to help their progress,
the general level of skill began to decline both in fine
and useful arts from about the 8th century A. D.
Apprenticeship System : The training in fine
and useful arts¹ was usually given by the apprentice-
ship system under which the student agreed to work

1. विज्ञानमुच्यते शिल्पं हेमकुप्यादिसंस्थितिः ।
   नृत्यादिकं च तच्छिक्षन्कुर्यात्कर्म गुरोर्गृहे ॥
   बृहस्पति in विवादरत्नाकर, p. 141.
   Devanabhaṭṭa, while commenting on this observes कंकणकटका-
   दिनिर्माणविषयं नृत्यं गीतादिकरणविषयं चकारात्स्तंभकुंभादिरचनाविषयं
   च विज्ञानं शिल्पमुच्यते ।

VIII] PROFESSIONAL AND USEFUL EDUCATION 199
under his teacher for an agreed number of years.
During this period the teacher was to afford free
boarding and lodging to his apprentice. Our authorities
do not state the duration of the agreement, but it must
have varied with different crafts. It was usually
longer than the period required to master the craft,
because the teacher was expected to be compensated
for the trouble in teaching and the expenses in
feeding the apprentice from the wages he would earn
as a fully trained worker during the remaining period
of his indenture. The apprentice could not back
out of the agreement, if the teacher was not remiss
in his duties. If he deserted his teacher without a
sufficient cause, he was brought back and compelled
to stay, learn and work.¹ The neglect of the
training of the apprentice and the assignment to him of

1. Cf स्वशिल्पमिच्छन्नाहर्तु बान्धवानामनुज्ञया ।
   आचार्यस्य वसेदन्ते कृत्वा कालं सुनिश्चितम् ॥ १७ ॥
   आचार्यः शिक्षयेदेनं स्वगृहे दत्तभोजनम् ।
   न चान्यत्कारयेत्कर्म पुत्रवच्चैनमाचरेत् ॥ १८ ॥
   शिक्षयन्तमदुष्टं य आचार्यं संपरित्यजेत् ।
   बलाद्वासयितव्यस्स्याद्वधबन्धौ च सोर्हति ॥ १९ ॥
   शिक्षितोपि कृतं कालमन्तेवासी समाप्नुयात् ।
   तत्र कर्म च यत्कुर्यादाचार्यस्यैव तत्फलम् ॥ २० ॥
   गृहीतशिल्पः समये कृत्वाचार्यप्रदक्षिणाम् ।
   शक्तितश्चानुमान्यैनमन्तेवासी निवर्तते ॥ २१ ॥
   वेतनं वा यदि कृतं ज्ञात्वा शिष्यस्य कौशलम् ।
   अन्तेवासी समादद्यान्न चान्यस्य गृहे वसेत् ॥ २२ ॥
   नारदस्मृति, शुश्रूषाभ्युपगमप्रकरणम् ।

200 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
work unconnected with his craft¹ were regarded as
sufficient causes to nullify the agreement and permit
the apprentice to leave his teacher. At the end of
the agreed period, the student could leave his teacher
after offering him a suitable honorarium. If however
the teacher offered him suitable wages, he was expected
to serve him in preference to a stranger.²
Workshop Atmosphere during Training:—Our
authorities lay down that the apprentice should live
in his teacher's house or factory for all the 24 hours.
This was to ensure a thorough acquaintance with and
grounding in the different processes of the craft that
could be picked up only by an intimate and prolonged
contact with the various stages of the manufacturing
processes. Students were also trained to make their
own tools in order to ensure perfect mastery of the
profession. A painter, for example, made his own
brushes from out of roots or fibres, hair of squirrels or
awns of various grasses. He did not rely on colours
prepared by others, but knew how to make them
himself. A repousser was taught to make tools suitable
for the work in hand.
Painter's Training as an Illustration :—In order to
give an idea of the various stages of the training of

1. यस्तु न ग्राहयेच्छिल्पं कर्माण्यन्यानि कारयेत् । प्राप्नुयात्साहसं
   पूर्वं तस्माच्छिष्यो निवर्तते । Kātyāyana in Aparārka on Yāj. II, 84.
2. There is some resemblance between the Indian apprenticeship
   system outlined above and the system prevailing in medieval Europe.
   In Europe too the apprentice had to spend the earlier part of his
   indenture period learning his craft and getting no wages. When he
   had learnt his art, he would become a journeyman, but he could
   undertake no work except through and for the benefit of his master.
   At the end of the agreed period, he was at liberty to start his own
   business. In Europe, guilds would permit an artisan to take only one
   student for training; we do not know whether there were similar restric-
   tions in ancient India. Graves, A history of Education, Vol. II, p. 97.

VIII] PROFESSIONAL AND USEFUL EDUCATION 201
the apprentice, we shall give here the different stages
in the training of the painter. The apprentice was
first given a practice in drawing lines and curves.
When the hand, eye and memory were trained in the
use of fundamental curves in this fashion, traditional
ornaments and decorative motifs were taught. Then
followed a training in the drawing of the mythical
animals and designs with men and beasts in them. The
master would then take his apprentice to assist him in
his work at the temple. At first the student would
help the teacher only in grinding colours, then in
priming the surfaces, then in applying ground colours
and finally in filling the outlines sketched by his master.
Experience was thus given in practical work. In
the course of time when the teacher was satisfied about
the sincerity, devotion and ability of the apprentice, he
would impart the trade secrets. Throughout the course
the technique of the profession was taught in relation
to real things and problems.¹
**Theoretical and Moral Training :—**Nor was theo-
retical and moral training neglected. A working
knowledge of Sanskrit was imparted to advanced
workers in sculpture, painting and architecture, as
most of the theoretical works on the subjects were
written in that language. A knowledge of Purāṇas
and works on iconography was necessary both for the
sculptor and the painter in order to chisel or paint
properly the various themes of the Pauranic history
and mythology. Architects and engineers used to
receive the necessary grounding in mathematics also.
The apprentice was always asked to remember that he
was expected to be a pious and honest person abiding
by the rules prescribed for the artists by sacred texts
1, Coomaraswami, The Indian Craftsman, pp. 88-90.

202 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch..
and tradition. The doctor was to remember that he
was to save his patient even at the cost of his own
life, if necessary.
Efficiency of Training : The training under the
above apprenticeship system was fairly efficient, for
it was both theoretical and practical and given in the
workshop itself. It helped to raise the general level
of the skill and workmanship in several arts and crafts.
Indian artisans took no time in manufacturing scrapers
and sponges that they first saw being used by Greek
invaders. Fine thread and wool were used to
manufacture sponges and they were then dyed, so that
they looked similar to Greek articles. The efficiency
of the Punjab ship-builders may be inferred from the
fact that they could supply to Alexander the Great a
huge fleet, probably of not less than 1,000 boats, in
about three months' time. The skill in mining,
metallurgy, smelting and welding attained by ancient
Indians was of a high order; experts are still
wondering how the composition of the famous Iron
Pillar near Kutub Minar at Delhi could be made so
flawless by the metallurgists of Chandragupta II
(c. 375-413 A. D.) as to prevent its rusting in spite of
its being exposed to rain and sunshine for more than
fifteen centuries. In the Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya, we
find a fairly accurate knowledge of the nature of the
ores of gold, silver, copper, etc., and of the processes by
which they were purified (II, 12-3). The weaving
industry could command the markets of the greater part
of the Old World before it was crushed by the advent
of the steam engine in the 19th century. In sculpture
we find a continuous progress from c. 200 B. C. and a
readiness to learn even from the foreigner. Paintings
as illustrated at Ajanta show a high development of
the art. The beautiful cave temples of western India

VIII] PROFESSIONAL AND USEFUL EDUCATION 203.
and the graceful as well as huge shrines of Orissa and
South India show that the Indian architect could solve
a number of difficulties, which we think it hardly
possible to overcome except with the help of the
modern machinary.
Was Professional Education narrow ? : Prima
facie the professional education as given by the
apprenticeship system seems to be narrow ; the
student seems to have been taught only what the
tradition and works of his profession had to teach.
There is, however, some historical evidence to show
that many of the artists and artisans of the age used to
possess a good amount of cultural and literary
education as well. Thus some of the members of the
weavers' guilds at Daśapura (in Malva) used to take
active interest in astronomy and folklore during the
5th century A. D. There is no evidence to prove or
disprove that what was true of this guild at Mandsore
was true of the average artisan of the period. The
conclusion may, however, be hazarded that down to the
8th or the 9th century A. D. artisans of the highest
grade used to receive a fair amount of liberal
education. Later on owing to the decline of
literacy and the low esteem in which arts and handi-
crafts began to be held, there was a setback and
artisans began to blindly follow the processes that were
handed down to them by tradition.

Chapter IX
FEMALE EDUCATION
Eligibility of women for sacrifices necessitates their Upanayana
and helps their education—Two classes of girl-students—Attainments of
lady scholars in the early period—Early Buddhism helps female
education—Arrangements for teaching girl students—Was there
coeducation ? Deterioration of women's religious status after c. 200
B. C. retards their education— So does the lowering of the marriage
age—Lady authors of the 1st millennium A. D.—They belonged to
cultured families—Female education in ordinary families—Buddhism
ceases to help it—Education of princesses and Kshatriya girls—Female
education and economic independence—Female education in medieval
times.
SECTION I
Female Education before c. 200 B. C.
**A strange Phenomenon :—**The history of the most
of the known civilisations shows that the further back
we go into antiquity, the more unsatisfactory is found
to be the general position of women. Hindu civilisation
is unique in this respect, for here we find a surprising
exception to the general rule. The further back we
go, the more satisfactory is found to be the position of
women in more spheres than one. And the field. of
education is most noteworthy among them. We can
however understand this strange phenomenon when
we remember that for a long time education in ancient
India meant Vedic education, and that it had to be
necessarily imparted to all who were expected to take
part in Vedic sacrifices. irrespective of their sex.
Women eligible for Vedic Sacrifices : There is
ample and convincing evidence to show that women
were regarded as perfectly eligible for the privilege of
studying the Vedic literature and performing the

IX] FEMALE EDUCATION 205
sacrifices enjoined in it down to about 200 B. C. This
need not surprise us, for some of the hymns of the
Ṛigveda are the compositions of poetesses. Even the
orthodox tradition admits that the Ṛigvedic
collection contains hymns composed by twenty
different poetesses. Viśvavārā, Sikatā Nivāvarī,
Ghoshā, Romaśā, Lopāmudrā, Apālā and Urvaśī are
the names of some of them. Man could perform the
Vedic sacrifices only if he had his wife by his side ;¹
both had to undergo a special initiation² on the
occasion and take equally active part in its procedure.³
Down to the end of the Mauryan period, the housewife
was expected to offer oblations in the household
(grihya) fire unaided by the husband, normally in the
evening and sometimes in the morning also.⁴ In the
srastarārohaṇa ritual of the Agrahāyaṇa ceremony, the
wife used to recite a number of Vedic hymns⁵ and
the harvest sacrifices could be performed by women
alone, 'because such was the long standing custom'.⁶
From the Rāmāyaṇa we learn that Kauśalyā was by
herself alone performing a sacrifice on the morning of
her son's proposed installation as an heir-apparent ;⁷
1 अयज्ञियो वा एष योऽपत्नीकः । S. Br., V. 1. 6-10
2 T. Br. III. 3. 3
3 या दंपती सुमनसा सुनुत आ च धावतः । देवासो नित्ययाशिरा ।
R. V., VIII. 31
4 Go. Gr. S., 1. 3. The term patnī denotes the special connec-
tion of the wife with her husband's sacrifices ; cf.
पत्युर्नो यज्ञसंयोगे । Paṇini, IV. 1. 33
5 P. G. S., III. 2. See the commentary of Harihara also.
6 स्त्रियश्चोपयजेरन्नाचरितत्वात् । P. G. S., II. 20.
7 सा क्षौमवसना हृष्टा नित्यं व्रतपरायणा ।
अग्निं जुहोति स्म तदा मंत्रवित्कृतमंगला ॥ II. 20. 15.

206 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
the same was the case with Tārā when her husband
Vālī was about to leave the palace to meet Sugrīva in
the fateful encounter.¹ It is interesting to note that
both these ladies are expressly described by the epic
as mantravid, i. e. well grounded in the Vedic literature.
We need not then wonder if we find Sītā also offering
her Vedic prayer during the days of her captivity in
Laṅkā.² Kuntī, the mother of Pāṇḍavas, was well-
versed in the Mantras of the Atharvaveda (Mbh., III.
305. 20).
Upanayana of Girls : No one can recite Vedic
prayers or offer Vedic sacrifices without having under-
gone the Vedic initiation (Upanayana). It is, therefore,
but natural that in the early period the Upanayana of
girls should have been as common as that of boys.
There is ample evidence to show that such was the
case. The Atharvaveda (XI. 5. 18) expressly refers to
maidens undergoing the Brahmacharya discipline³ and
the Sūtra works of the 5th century B. C. supply
interesting details in its connection. Even Manu
includes Upanayana among the saṁskāras (rituals)
obligatory for girls (II. 66). After about the beginning
of the Christian era, girls' Upanayana went out of
vogue, but Smṛiti writers of even the 8th century A. D.
like Yama admit its prevalence in the earlier age.⁴
¹ ततः स्वस्त्ययनं कृत्वा मंत्रविद्विजयैषिणी । IV. 16. 12.
² संध्याकालमनाः श्यामा ध्रुवमेष्यति जानकी ।
नदीं चेमां शुभजलां संध्यार्थं वरवर्णिनी ॥ V. 15. 48.
³ ब्रह्मचर्येण कन्या युवानं विन्दते पतिम् । XI. 5. 18.
⁴ Cf. पुराकल्पे तु नारीणां मौञ्जीबन्धनमिष्यते ।
अध्यापनं च वेदानां सावित्रीवचनं तथा ॥
पिता पितृव्यो भ्राता वा नैनामध्यापयेत्परः ।
स्वगृहे चैव कन्याया भैक्षचर्या विधीयते ॥

IX] FEMALE EDUCATION 207
Two Classes of Girl Students :—There were no
child marriages in the Vedic period ; as a rule however
girls could not remain unmarried as long as boys as
they had to be younger than their spouses. Majority
of them used to get married at the age of 16 or 17,
and only a few would prosecute their studies after
that age. Girls of the former class were called
Sadyovadhūs, and of the latter class Brahmvādinīs.
The education of the Sadyovadhūs comprised the study
of important Vedic hymns necessary for usual prayers
and sacrifices. Music and dancing were also taught
to them ; partiality of women to these arts is often
referred to in the Vedic literature.¹ Brahmavādinīs
used to marry after their education was over ; some of
them like Vedavatī, a daughter of sage Kuśadhvaja,
would not marry at all (Rām., VII. 17).
Attainments of Lady Scholars :—The attainments
of lady scholars, who remained unmarried for a longer
time, were naturally wider and more varied. In the
Vedic age, they used to acquire thorough mastery in the
Vedic literature and even compose poems, some of
which have been honoured by their inclusion in the sacred
canon. When the Vedic lore and sacrifices became
complex, a new branch of study, called Mīmānsā, came
to be developed in their connection. Though this
was a subject, drier than mathematics, we find lady
scholars taking keen interest in it. Kāśakṛitsnin had
composed a work on Mīmānsā called Kāśakṛitsnī after
him ; lady students who used to specialise in it, were
known as Kāśakṛitsnā.² If lady specialists in a technical

1. S. Br., III. 2. 4. 6 observes that women can be easily won
   over by one who can sing and dance. Appreriation of music and dan-
   cing of course presupposes a training in them.
   2 एवमपि काशकृत्स्निना प्रोक्ता मीमांसा काशकृत्स्नी । काशकृत्स्नी-
   मधीते काशकृत्स्ना ब्राह्मणी । On IV, 1, 14 ; 3, 155.

208 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch..
science like Mīmāṁsā were so numerous as to necessitate
the coining of a new special term to denote them, we
can reasonably conclude that the number of women
who used to receive general literary and cultural
education must have been fairly large. When in the
course of time the study of philosophy became popular
in the Upanishadic age, women began to take keen
interest in that subject also. Such was the case with
Yājñavalkya's wife Maitreyī; she was more interested
in studying deeper problems of philosophy than in
wearing costly jewels and apparels.¹ In the philo-
sophical tournament held during the sacrificial session
performed under the auspices of king Janaka, it is
interesting to note that the subtlest philosophical
question was asked by the lady philosopher Gārgī
Vāchaknavī.² The question was so subtle and esoteric
in character that Yājñavalkya refused to discuss it in
public. The keen reasoning and subtle cross-exami-
nation of Yājñavalkya by Gārgī shows that she was a
dialectician and philosopher of a high order. Ātreyī
of the Uttara-Rāma-charit was another lady, who was
studying Vedānta under Vālmīki and Agastya.³
Some lady scholars of the age like Sulabhā, Vaḍavā,
Prāthiteyī, Maitreyī, and Gārgī seem to have made
real contribution to the advancement of knowledge, for
they enjoy the rare privilege of being included among
the galaxy of distinguished scholars, to whom a
daily tribute of gratitude was to be given by a
1 Br. Up., II, 4; IV, 5. Cf.—सा होवाच मैत्रेयी। येनाहं नामृता
स्याम् किं तेनाहं कुर्यामिति ।
2 अनतिप्रश्न्यां वै देवतामतिपृच्छसि । Ibid. III, 6, 1.
3 तेभ्योऽधिगन्तुं निगमान्तविद्यां वाल्मीकिपार्श्वादिह संचरामि ।
Act II.

IX] FEMALE EDUCATION 209
grateful posterity at the time of the daily prayer
(Brahmayajña).¹
Effect of Buddhism on Female Education : The
eventual permission, which the Buddha accorded to the
admission of women to his Church, gave an impetus
to the spread of education and philosophy among the
ladies of the aristocratic and commercial communities.
Like Brahmavādinīs, several ladies in Buddhist
families also used to lead a life of celibacy, with the
aim of understanding and following the eternal truths
of religion and philosophy. Some of them even went
outside India to countries like Ceylon and became
famous there as teachers of the holy scriptures.
Among the authoresses of the Therī-gāthā, who were
believed to have attained salvation, 32 were unmarried
women and 18 married ones. Amongst the former,
Subhā, Anopamā and Sumedhā belonged to very rich
families, and are said to have been wooed by princes
and rich merchants ² When so large a percentage of
girls was leading a life of celibacy in pursuit of religion
and philosophy, it is but natural that the general
average of intelligence and educatioh among them
must have been fairly high.
How Girls were educated : Let us now try to
find out the agencies for imparting female education
during this period. We have already seen that for
a long time family was the only educational institution,
and even boys used to receive education only from
their fathers, uncles or other elders. The same
naturally was the case with girls. When however
later Smṛitis like Yama³ lay down that none but
1 As'. G. S., III. 4. 4.; S'a. G. S., IV. 10. 3.
2 Horner, Women under Primitive Buddhism, Chap. II.
3 पिता पितृव्यो भ्राता वा नैनामध्यापयेत् परः ।
14

210 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
near relations should teach girl students, they are
probably referring to a state of affairs current by
about the beginning of the Christian era; for there
is evidence to show that such was not the case in
the earlier period. When a large number of women
were receiving higher education and were making
their own contributions to the march of knowledge,
it is but natural to suppose that some of them must
have followed the profession of teaching. And the
presence of the terms Upādhyāyā and Upādhyāyānī in
Sanskrit language supports this conjecture. The
latter of these words is a courtesy title given to the
wife of a teacher, who may or may not be educated.
The former, however, denotes a lady, who was herself
a teacher. That a special term should have been
coined to denote lady teachers in order to distinguish
them from wives of teachers would show that their
number in society could not have been small. We
must note in this connection that there was no Purdah
custom in Hindu society down to the 12th century, and
so there was no difficulty for women in taking to the
teaching profession. Lady teachers may probably
have confined themselves to the teaching of girl
students, though some may have taught boys also.
Pāṇini refers to boarding houses for lady-students,
chhātrīśālās², and these probably were under the
superintendence of Upādhyāyās or lady teachers, who
had made teaching their profession. Unfortunately
we have no clear and sufficient evidence about the
activities of lady teachers and the management of
girls' boardings.
1 उपेत्याधीयते अस्याः सा उपाध्याया । Patañjali on III. 322.
2 छात्र्यादयः शालायाम् । VI. 2. 86.

IX] FEMALE EDUCATION 211
Was there co-education ? The modern reader
would be anxious to know whether co-education
prevailed in the past. Our sources however throw but
dim light on the subject. From the Mālatīmādhava
of Bhavabhūti, written in the 8th century A. D., we
learn that the nun Kāmandakī was educated along
with Bhūrivasu and Devarāta at a famous centre of
education.¹ This would show that if not in Bhava-
bhūti's time, at least some centuries earlier, sometimes
boys and girls were educated together while receiving
higher education. In the Uttara-Rāma-charit also (of
the same author) we find Ātreyī receiving her
education along with Kuśa and Lava (Act II). The
stories of Kahoda and Sujātā and Ruru and
Pramadvarā, narrated in Purāṇas, would also point
to co-education. They would further show that at a
time when girls were being married at an advanced
age and receiving co-education, sometimes love-
marriages used to take place as a consequence of it.
When however there were competent lady teachers,
parents may have preferred to send their daughters
to read under them ; but when they were not available,
they may have sent their wards to read under male
teachers, and necessarily along with male students.
In an age, which looked upon love marriages as
nothing abnormal,² co-education need not have
frightened the parents. What percentage of girls
¹ अयि किं न वेत्सि यदेकत्र नो विद्यापरिग्रहाय नानादिगन्तवासिनां
साहचर्यमासीत् । Act I.
² सुखत्वादबहुक्लेशादपि चावरणादिह ।
अनुरागात्मकत्वाच्च गांधर्वः प्रवरो मतः । Kāmasūtra, III. 5. 30
गांधर्वमप्येके प्रशंसंति सर्वेषां स्नेहानुगतत्वात् ।
B. D. S., I. 11-13. 7

212 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
received co-education is a question which we cannot
answer in the present state of our knowledge. It
could not however have been very large.
Extent of Female Education : It is not easy to
determine the extent of female education during the
period we are reviewing here. Vedic literature has
preserved rituals to be performed by parents anxious
for the birth of scholarly daughters¹; it would therefore
follow that many parents must have been anxious that
their daughters should become cultured and accom-
plished ladies. Education of girls could not have been
neglected by the ordinary well-to-do father. Upa-
nayana ritual was also obligatory for girls, and this
must have ensured the imparting of a certain amount
of Vedic and literary education to the girls of all the
Aryan classes. We may therefore presume that as
long as Upanayana ritual was performed in the case of
girls, and the custom of child marriage had not taken
root in society, girls of well-to-do families must be
receiving fairly good education. Such continued to be
the case down to c. 500 B. C.
SECTION II.
FEMALE EDUCATION FROM c. 200 B.C. TO
c. 1200 A.D.
Deterioration in religious Status : Female educa-
tion received a great setback during this period
primarily owing to the deterioration of the religious
status of women. During the earlier period, Upanayana
ceremony was as much obligatory for girls as it was
¹ अथ य इच्छेद्दुहिता मे पंडिता जायेत सर्वमायुरियादिति तिलौदनं
पाचयित्वा सर्पिष्मन्तमश्नीयाताम् । Br. Up., VI, 4. 17.