उपवनविनोद (आचार्य शार्ङ्गधर - वृक्षायुर्वेद, भू-जल संधान एवं उद्यान-विज्ञान सटीक)

SCIENCE OF ARBORI-HORTICULTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA 3
excavation of ten such ponds is equivalent to that of a lake, and the excavation
of ten such lakes has as much effect as that of begetting a virtuous son and
the birth of ten such sons has exactly the same effect as that of planting a
single tree."¹
In another chapter of the same Purāṇa, details of the rites and virtues of
planting trees are given : "One who plants even one tree, according to the
prescribed rites, resides in heaven for 30,000 years of Indra. The planter
of trees, according to the prescribed rites, liberates the same number of his
past and future manes, attains to the highest perfection and is never reborn
on earth".²
A similar eulogy on the practice is prescribed by the Agni Purāṇa : the
planting of trees and the construction of pleasure gardens (for the public) are
conducive to purgation of sin and enjoyment of prosperity.³
Varāha Purāṇa enjoins that "he never goes to hell who plants an Aswattha
or a Pichumanda, or a Banyan, or ten Jasmines, or two pomegranates, or
five mangoes (pañchāmras).⁴ A similar verse also occurs in Tithitattva where
instead of Banyan, Jasmines and Pomegranates we have Champaka, Keśara,
Tāla and Nārikela.
A more elaborate injunction describing the particular effects of planting
particular trees by the roadside is given in the Padma Purāṇa : "Plants are
like sons to a sonless man. Therefore, plant Aswattha trees with care, for it
does the work of a thousand good sons. The planting, further, of Aswattha
leades to prosperity ; of Aśoka, to destruction of all sorrow ; of Udumbara,
increases (the effect of ) sacrifices, of Nimba, to longevity ; of Jambaki,
residence in heaven ; of Dāḍima leads to the bliss of a good wife ; of
Dumura, to the cure of all diseases ; of Palāśa, to the protection of Brahmā ;
of Arka, to the eternal pleasure of the Solar Deity, of Bilva, to that of Śiva,
and of Pātali, to that of Pārvatī ; of Śiṁsapā, to that of the Apsarās
(female seraphim) ; of Kunda, to that of the Gandharvas ; of Bibhītaka, to
the increase of the number of servants, and of Vakula, gives maid servants.
The Tāla leads to the loss of one's all children, and the Nārikela gives
many wives, Drākṣā to all-round prosperity, Keli to physical pleasure, Ketakī
to ruin and Plakṣa leads to permanent fame." This list practically exhausts
the whole of human pleasures and pain. The same authority further
tells us that, "the man planting trees (by the wayside) will enjoy bliss in
1 Chap. 154, St. 511—512. }
2 Chap. 59, St. 17—20. } S. B. H. 17, parts i & ii, Allahabad.
3 Chap. 70, St. 1—9. Eng. translation—M. N. Dutta, 2 Vols. Calcutta, 1904.
4 गोकर्णमाहात्म्यनामाध्याय:—(for text see appendix) ; see also J. A. S. B. 39, Part 1, 3,
pp. 199—232.

4 UPAVANA VINODA
heaven for as many years as there are fruits and flowers and leaves in the
plant he plants¹".
Birdwood in this connection quotes an authority which says : "The
Brahmanas promise that he who plants one Aswattha, two Champakas, three
Nāgakeśaras, seven Tālas, twelve Nārikelas, and devotes them with their
shade, leaves, flowers, and fruits to public use, shall certainly inherit the
kingdom of Heaven."²
This is no mere irrational superstition. There is a plain reason behind the
practice prescribed. The Agnipurāṇa has the following explanatory verses :
"The man who plants trees bearing fruits and flowers for the enjoyment of the
public attains to a supreme state of bliss. The man who plants thirty trees
giving shade, fruits and flowers, and ten mango trees, is not destined to go to
hell. Gods, demons, angels, seraphs, and the whole of the flying fraternity,
beasts, and birds and men—all receive some sort of delight through trees.
The gods get pleasure through flowers, the manes through fruits, and men and
birds and beasts through shade. The man who plants trees giving fragrant
flowers and sweet fruits, is re-born, as a result, as a Brahmin in a respectable
family enjoying prestige and wealth in a prosperous country. So one should
plant such trees and look after them as if they were one's own children which,
in fact, religiously speaking they are. The mortal sons are meant for purely
selfish purposes whereas the 'tree-sons' serve purely altruistic ones. Leaves
and flowers and fruits and shades and roots and barks and wood (timber)
benefit others and bring salvation to our forefathers. One should worship
trees as one worships a sage free from the vice of envy, because it provides
with shade and fruits and flowers even to its very cutter. The all-giving
'tree-son', which does not bear a grudge even to its 'cutter-father' out of selfish
consideration, brings about the complete salvation to the planter. So the
Brahmin should always plant them with due ceremony and treat them
as his sons."³
The Varāha Purāṇa observes on the same point—"A man by planting
trees attains to the same bliss as he does by gift of cows and land. Just
as a pious son saves the family, just as good but difficult rules followed
with care save the performer from hell, so also do trees full of flowers
and fruits save the planter."⁴ In the same chapter Gokarṇa says—"That
(the tree) which is taken for fuel is called "agnihotra" (the sacrificial fire) ;
the tree by reason of shade and rest for travellers, the nest of birds, and
1 Chap. 26, Vṛkṣaropanam.
2 Indian Arts, Part 1, pp. 85—91.
3 Chap. on तड़ागवृक्षप्रशंसा ।
4 Chap. on Gokarṇamāhātmya.

SCIENCE OF ARBORI-HORTICULTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA 5
leaves, roots and barks, etc., for drugs of bodied beings is called a
“pañchayajña” (who observed the five sacrifices). It houses small animals
for whom it would have been difficult to build a house. It sheds leaves to
give alms, and this is how it ends its sacrifice (pañchayajña). It produces
fruit twice a year which all the year round are of service to their parents
(planter), and there are omens to be understood from the trees. Thus, O son,
are they (the trees) to be duly planted, and so the seers know.”
The Agni Purāṇa then very aptly concludes : “Therefore never cut
down any tree that bears good flowers and fruits, if you desire the increase
of your family, of your wealth, and of your future happiness. If a man
cuts down trees near temples, chaityas and graves, famine, epidemic and
drought follow. If one destroys Chiñcha trees, serious mischief to the monarch
is the consequence. If one destroys a boundary tree he dies with his
horses ; therefore, one should not cut down trees of the region haunted
by gods. The supremely wicked man who cuts down trees and thereby
stops the passage to wells, ponds and lakes gets his family degraded and
even his distant relatives despatched to hell. The man who cuts down
trees giving cool shade is tortured by the agents of Yama in the particularly
grim region of hell known as Asipatra-forests. The man who molests or
cuts down trees in the suburbs of a town goes to the fierce-looking region
of hell known as Jṛmbhaṇa. If a man cares after Bilva tree it is well and
good for him, otherwise danger is sure to follow. One should plant five
Bilva trees if he is not to miss heaven.”¹
Thus the general idea underlying the whole practice is one of public
utility religiously enjoined in order to make it universally understood,
appreciated and followed, so much so that even in the Edicts of Aśoka
this has been regarded as an act of Piety :
Rock Edict II—Provision of comforts for men and animals
“......On the roads both wells have been dug and trees planted for
the enjoyment of man and beast.”
Pillar Edict VII—Review of the king’s measures for the propagation
of the Law of Piety
(v) Thus said His Sacred and Gracious Majesty the King : On the
roads I have had banyan trees planted to give shade to man and beasts ;
I have had groves of mango trees planted ; at every half-Kōs I have had
wells dug ; rest houses have been erected ; and numerous watering places
have been provided by me here and there for the enjoyment of man
and beast.”²
1 Chapter on Varuṇārāmapratiṣṭhā. Cf. Varāhapurāṇa where it is said : धार्म्याश्चैव ये वृक्षा
न च्छेत्तव्याः कदाचन ।
2 Edicts of Aśoka, V. A. Smith, 1st Edition. pp. 7-8 & 33-34.

6 UPAVANA VINODA
And by the time of Manu destruction of plants came to be regarded
as State offence, and in his code provision was made for its punishment
(VIII, 285, 330 and 331 ; IX, 143, 145).¹
The Matsya Purāṇa prescribes degree of punishment proportionate
to the guilt; thus "one who fells his master's or other's trees should be
fined gold pieces; and double the fine should be imposed on those who
cut a tree near a tank, a thoroughfare, or a boundary line (91-92). Those
who break fruit trees, arbours, creepers and floral plants should be fined
one māsha of gold (93). Even a man chopping grass unnecessarily should
be made liable to pay a fine of kārṣāpaṇa (94). Out of the fine levied
for cutting trees the king should use his own discretion: he must pay
the owner of the trees the price for them and the rest should go to the
Royal Exchequer(95).²
Thus the plants are glorified because of their utility. They are either
sacred to some deity, or are shade-giving, or fruit-bearing, or bearing flowers
which one needed for worship.
II. GOOD AND EVIL OMENS RELATING TO RESIDENCE
NEAR TREES
Reference to the trees and plants which are to be avoided in gardens
adjoining a house, and to trees that are to be preferred, is plentiful in
ancient literature. Beginning with the earliest we find Gobhila enjoining in
Gṛhyasūtra :
"Let him (householder) avoid an Aswattha tree on the east side (of his
house), and a Plakṣa on the south side, Nyagrodha on the west side, and on
the north side an Udumbara". 22.
"One should say that an Aswattha brings (to the house) danger from fire,
one should say that a Plakṣa tree brings early death (to the inhabitants of the
house), that a Nyagrodha brings oppression through (hostile) arms, that an
Udumbara brings diseases to the eye". 23.
"The Aswatha is sacred to the Sun, the Plakṣa to Yama, the Nyagrodha
is the tree that belongs to Varuṇa, the Udumbara to Prajāpati". 24.
"He should place those (trees) in another place than their proper ones (25)
and should sacrifice to those same deities."³ 26.
1 Institutes of Manu, S. B. E. 25, pp. 304, et sq; & 459.
2 Chap. 227, sl. 91-95. S. B. H. 17 (ii), p. 245.
3 IV, 7; S. B. E. XXX, p. 122; for verse 24, cf. Padma P. Uttarākhaṇḍa where it is
said—
अश्वत्थरूपो भगवान विष्णुरेव न संशयः ।
रुद्रोरूपवटस्तद्वत्पलाशो ब्रह्मरूपधृक् ॥

SCIENCE OF ARBORI-HORTICULTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA 7
Varāhamihira says that "the presence of Plakṣa, Vaṭa, Udumbara and
Aśwattha trees respectively in the south, west, north and east of a house
forebodes evil, and if the same trees are present in order—Plakṣa being in the
north, Vaṭa in the east, Udumbara in the south, and Aśwattha in the west it
means good to the house." 83
"Presence of thorny trees like Khadira near a house means danger from
enemies, that of Kṣīra trees (trees with milky juice) loss of things, and that of
fruit trees, like mango, etc., indicates loss of children (prajākṣayakara). One
should not use even the wood of these trees as fuel". 84.
"If one does not want to part with these trees one should do well to plant
Punnāga, Aśoka, Ariṣṭa, Vakula, Panasa, Śamī and Sāla near them."¹ 85.
Bhaṭṭotpala in his commentary on the Bṛhatsaṁhitā quotes Garga who
enjoins that "one should avoid Aśwattha in the east, Plakṣa in the south,
Nyagrodha in the west and Udumbara in the north (of his house), for, it is
said that Aśwattha (in such position) engenders fear, Plakṣa defeat,
Nyagrodha illness of the king and Udumbara that of eyes. Vaṭa in front of
a house is best, so are the Udumbara, Aśwattha, and Plakṣa in the south,
west and north of the house respectively."
Varāhamihira in another place says, "let us first of all talk of trees that
should be planted in a garden, or in the house itself. Ariṣṭa, Aśoka, Punnāga,
Śirīṣa, Priyaṅgu, should be planted in the garden, or in the house as preemi-
nently conducive to the welfare of the house." Kaśyapa, another authority,
adds Champaka, Udumbara and Pārijātaka to the above list and says, that they
should be planted in *devālayé tathodyāné gṛhesūpāvanesu cha"*² 3. The
Agni Purāṇa prescribes that "a Plakṣa tree planted and grown on the north
of a building brings good luck to its master, whereas a Vaṭa tree on its east,
an Udumbara on its south and an Aśwattha on its west are possessed of
similar virtues. The garden should be laid on the lefthand side of a
dwelling house."³
To promote the hygienic effects of different trees and shrubs planted
around the dwelling of a man the Agnipuraṇa further enjoins that "Plakṣas
should be planted to the north of a dwelling house, the Vaṭas on the east,
mangoes on the south, Aśwattha on the west. Thorny shrubs should be so
planted as to edge the southern boundary of the ground of a house. The
flower garden should be laid out adjoining a dwelling house, and blooming
plants or sesame should be cultivated therein."
"Tanks should be excavated in the gardens, and arms of rivers should be
made to run in the same. Trees such as Ariṣṭa, Aśoka, Kadali, Punnāga, Śirīṣa,
1 Bṛhatsaṁhitā. Chap. 52. Vāstuvidyā, Vol. ii, pp. 643-705.
2 Chap. 54, Vṛkṣhāyurveda, Vol. II, p. 743 (Sanskrit original).
3 Chap. 246, English translation, pp. 889-893.

8 UPAVANA VINODA
Jambu, Vakula and Dāḍima or any other (useful) trees should be carefully
planted in a garden.¹”
The Matsyapurāṇa has a similar but a more elaborate prescription, thus :
“A banyan tree to the east of a house is auspicious, and all desires are fulfilled ;
a fig tree to the south, a pipal tree on the west and a plakṣa to the north of
it brings fortune to the owner. If kaṇṭaki' (thorny) trees, milky trees, Asana
trees and the straight trees be planted in the house in the above mentioned
direction respectively, then it means misery to the lady of the house and her
children. If one does not cut down such a growth he should plant auspicious
trees near them. A house with the following trees in its vicinity is very
auspicious, viz., Punnāga, Aśoka, Vakula, Śamī, Tilaka, Champaka, Dāḍima,
Pippali, Drākshā and a kusumamaṇḍapa (bower). The following trees
bring prosperity and increase riches, viz., Jambīra, Pūga, Mallikā, Nārikela,
Kadali and Pātali²” 20-24.
The Brahmavaivartta Purāṇa is more exhaustive in this respect. Thus
it says “that the cocoanut tree near the dwelling house confers wealth on the
family, and if on the east, or north-east of an encampment, the tree is the
donor of sons ; the mango tree, the best of the trees, is auspicious at every
place, and if situated in the east gives wealth to man. The Bilva, the Panasa,
the Jambīra and the Vadari trees are, in all situations, conducive to prosperity,
but, if in the east they give sons and, on the south, confer wealth on the
owner. The Jambuka, Dāḍima, Kadali, and Āmrātaka grown in all situa-
tions enrich the house-holder, but if grown in the east they bring friends
(bandhu), and if in the south, intimate associates (mitra). They are always
conductive to good, wealth and plenty of children. Betelnut, if planted in
the south or in the west, leads to pleasure, and if in the north-east, comfort ;
wherever planted they bring prosperity. Champakas too, wherever planted,
bring in their train purity and welfare. Alābu, Kuṣmāṇḍa, Māyāmba,
Sukāsaka, Kharjjura, Karkati if planted in an encampment the result is great
good. Vāstuka, Karabilva, Vārtāku, Vallīphala, all these wherever planted
yield beneficient results.”
Then it gives the names of trees the planting of which should by all
means be avoided. “Wild trees should not be planted either in encapments
or in cities. Vata should not be planted in an encampment because it leads
to danger from thieves, but it is good for cities because its very look
confers virtue (on the lookers). The planting of Tintiḍī trees should be
avoided with all care ; the very remembrance of it is perilous to wealth and
dangerous to the life of the citizens ; they are to be totally prohibited in camp
1 Chap. 282, English translation, pp. 1037-1038.
2 Chap. 255, S. B. H. 17, ii, p. 298.

SCIENCE OF ARBORI-HORTICULTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA 9
and partly in cities ; they are, however, not to be prohibited in villages and
spacious towns. The wise persons should avoid by all means the air
coming from them. Kharjjūra and Uhu trees are forbidden in camps, but
certainly not in villages and spacious towns. Trees like Champaka and rice
plants are equally beneficient in villages, cities and in camps. Sugarcane,
Aśoka, Śirīṣa, Kadamba are always productive of good. So also are Kacvī',
Haridrā, Ārdraka and Harītakī, both in villages and in towns. The air
coming from the Āmalakī tree is not always beneficient’.¹
Śukrāchāryya in his Śukranī'ti is more practical on the subject. His general
instruction on the point is : “one should lay out a fair garden to the left
of the dwelling house (IV. iv, 104). He should plant those trees which bear
good fruits (phalinah) very near the village (IV. iv, 103).” Then he gives
a long list of such phalinah trees in IV. iv, 95—102. His other general
instructions are to plant thorny trees (kanṭakinah) in forests (113-114), and
expansive trees, shrubs and creepers “in villages if domestic, and in forests, if
wild”² (123-124).
In this, as well as in the sections that follow, we find that in the treatment
of plants from every aspect utility is distinctly kept in view.
III. SELECTION OF SOILS
A more elaborate attention is paid to the topic of classification of soils
with characteristic flora in Charaka³ and Suśruta⁴.
Charaka divides land into three classes, namely, Jāṅgala, Anūpa and
Sādhāraṇa according to the nature of the soil (edaphic conditions) and
climate (climatic conditons). Thus :

1. Jāṅgala Region (literally dry places—plants xerophytes)—“The region
   called Jāṅgala is full of unobstructed open spaces, where a steady and
   dry wind blows, pervaded with expansive mirages, rivers and rivulets scarce,
   abounding in (artificial) wells (i.e. scarcity of water), also abounding in dry
   and rough sands and big sandy particles (kankurs). 6 & 7.
   Suśruta describes this region as “the country which presents a flat surface,
   and whose dull monotony is enlivened here and there by scanty growths of
   thorny shrubs, and tops of a few isolated hills and knolls, and in which the
   waters from springs and wells, accumulated during the rains, become nearly
   1 Chap. 102, Śrīkrishna Janma khaṇḍa.
   2 S. B. H. 13, pp. 165-166.
   3 Kalpasthāna I, Madanaphala Kalpa, 6, 7—9 ; Eng. translation, Fasc. LXI, Lesson I, pp. 1917—1918.
   4 Sūtrasthāna, Chap. 35, 34—42. Eng. translation by K. L. Vishagratna, Vol. II, pp. 325—326 (Calcutta, 1911).
   2

10 UPAVANA VINODA
drained and strong gales of warm wind blow (during the greater part of the
year)'' 35.
Charaka gives, by way of illustration, the following list of plants character-
istic of this region : Khadira, Asana, Aśvakarṇa, Dhava, Tiniṣa, Sallaki, Sāla,
Somavalka, Vadari, Tinduka, Aswattha, Vata and Āmalakî, the predominant
types being Śami, Arjuna, and Śiṁśapā.'' 6 & 7.
2. Anūpa Region (literally marshy, or swampy and watery—plants littoral,
or inland)—''Mostly abounding in rivers and bordered by seas, swept by
cold wind, i. e., charged with abundant moisture. The country is interspersed
with rivers, banks of which are decked with—Vañjula and Vānīra. Mountains
are absent from this region. The region is thickly over-grown with forests
bowers, and trees in flowers encircled by verdant trees and tender creepers
(inland). The land is covered with dense forests of Hintāla, Tamāla, Nārikela
and Kadalī.'' 8.
Suśruta describes this region as the country ''that contains a large number
of pools, and is wooded and undulated with chains of lofty hills traversing
its area, and which is impassable owing to its network of rivers and sheets
of accumulated rain-water rippling before the currents of the gentle humid
air.'' 34.
Varāhamihira mentions the following trees as growing in this region :
Jambu, Vetasa, Vānīra, Kadamba, Udumbara, Arjuna, Vījapūraka, Drākṣā,
Lakoocha, Dāḍima, Vañjula, Naktamāla, Tilaka, Panasa, Timira and Āmrātaka
—these 16 kinds of trees are the predominant species of this region.''¹
Amarkoṣa mentions the following plants as growing exclusively in water :
Saugandhika, Kalhāra, Hallaka, Rakta-Sandhyaka, Utpala, Kubalaya, Indīvara,
Kumuda, Padma, Kamala, Puṇḍarīka, Sitāmbhoja, Kokanada, Raktotpala,
Vāriparṇī, Muṣākarṇī, Jalanīlī, and Śaivāla.²
3. Sādhāraṇa Region (literally the ordinary—plants mesophytes)—
Charaka says that ''the region which is endued with creepers, and plants
and trees of both the classes, i.e., the Vanaspatis and Vānaspatyas, is called
Sādhāraṇa.'' 9.
According to Suśruta ''a country which exhibited features common to both
the aforesaid classes is called Sādhāraṇa or the Ordinary'' 36.
As to the amount of rain-fall in these regions Kautilya in his Arthaśāstra
mentions that 16 droṇas of rain-fall in the country of Jāṅgala (dry places),
half as much more in Anūpa (moist) countries ; as to the countries which are
fit for agriculture (desavāpanam)—13½ droṇas in the country of Aśmakas
(Mahārāṣṭra) ; 23 in Avanti ; an immense quantity in Aparāntānam
1 Bṛhatsaṁhitā, Chap. 54, 10—11, Vol. II, p. 745 (Text).
2 Pātāla Varga 50-56 ; cf Colebrook's edition (1807), BK. I, Chap. 2, Sec. 3. 36-42.

SCIENCE OF ARBORI-HORTICULTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA 11
(Koṅkaṇa), and the foot of the Himalayas. The author finally directs that
"Lands that are beaten by foam (phenāghātaḥ, i.e., banks of rivers, etc.) are
suitable for growing valli'phala (pumpkin, gourd and the like); lands that are
frequently overflown by water (parivahanta) for long pepper, grapes (mṛdvīkā)
and sugarcane; the vicinity of wells for vegetables and roots, low grounds
(hariṇīparyantaḥ—moist bed of lakes) for green crops; and marginal furrows
between any two rows of crops are suitable for the plantation of fragrant
plants, medicinal herbs, cascus roots (uśīnāra), hira(?) beraka (?) and piṇḍāluka
(lac) and the like”.¹
Our survey in this section distinctly shows that classification of soil was
based on two grounds—medicinal and economic. The medical authorities,
like Charaka and Suśruta, had in view the efficacy of vegetable drugs which
depends on the nature of soil in which they grow. And politicians like
Chānakya cared for the productivity of different types of soil, an attention to
which is necessary on the part of a good Government to prevent famine.
IV. CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS, AND MEANS OF PROPAGATION²
A. CLASSIFICATION
A broad classification of plants, probably based on habits, into trees,
shrubs, herbs and creepers, is to be found as early as in the texts of the
Ṛgveda (X. 97. 15). Charaka classifies plants into 4 orders, namely,
Vanaspatis, Vānaspatyas (Vṛkṣas of Suśruta), Oṣadhis and Virudhs.
Vanaspatis are trees that bear fruits without flowers; Vānaspatyas are trees
that bear first flowers and then fruits; Oṣadhis are those herbs that wither
after fructification, and Virudhs are herbs with spreading stems, e.g. creepers
and gulmas ( लतागुल्मादिः ).³ Chakrapāṇi in his commentary on Charaka notes
that Virudhs comprise two classes (1) Latās—creepers, and (2) Gulmas—herbs
with succulent or cactaceous stems and shrubs, The Oshadhīs are subdivided
into (1) annuals or perennials, bearing fruits, and (2) plants that wither away
after maturing and without fructification, like the Durvā (grasses).
The commentator Dalvana gives us some details: The Plakṣa and the
Udumbara are given as instances of Vanaspatis; the mango, the Jambu, etc.,
of Vṛkṣas. The Virudhs are of two classes (1) creepers with stems spreading
on the ground ( प्रतानवत्यः ), and (2) herbs with succulent stems ( गुल्मिन्यः or
स्तम्बिन्यः वर्त्तुललतासन्ततिविशिष्टाः ).
The Oṣadhis are divided into two classes: (1) those that wither away
after fructification, e.g., wheat, barley, linseed, pulses, etc., (फलपाकनिष्ठा गोधूमादयः),
1 Chap. XXIV, 116-117, (Shyama Sastri Ed. (1915), pp. 143-145).
2 See Vanaspati, Sec. VII, for elaborate dealing of the subject, pp. 79-127.
3 Sūtrasthāna, I. 36, 37; (cf. Suśruta-Sūtrasthāna, I. 23),

12 UPAVANA VINODA
and (2) those that wither after maturity and bear neither flowers nor fruits
e.g., mushrooms.¹
Manu's division² of plants is more systematic than the above. According
to him :
(1) Those that bear abundant flowers and fruits and wither after
fructification are called Oṣadhīs, e. g. rice and wheat.
(2) Those that bear fruits without evident flowers are called Vanaspatis
e. g. Vaṭa, Plakṣa, etc.
(3) Both those which produce flowers only and those which produce
fruits only may be classed as Vṛkṣa.
(4) Bushy herbs of various types may be classed as Guccha, e. g.
Mallikā (Jasminum), and the like.
(5) Succulent shrubs of various types are known as Gulmas.
(6) Grasses of different kinds are called Tṛṇas.
(7) Creepers with stems spreading on the ground (procumbent and
document) are called Pratānas.
(8) Lastly, there are those which twine round or climb a tree or a
support, called Vallis.
Amara's classification is full of details showing a further advance in
knowledge :
(1) The trees (the flowering Vṛkṣas and the flowerless Vanaspatis)
are fruit-bearing and possess woody stem ( काष्ठदारु ), trunks ( प्रकाण्ड-प्रकाण्डः
स्कन्धः स्यान्मूलाच्छाखाविस्तरः ) ;
(2) Arboraceous plants and shrubs ( क्षुपः, ह्रस्वशाखाशिफः ) bearing flowers
as well as fruits.
(3) The Latās are flowering plants with herbaceous stems, some of them
creeping on the ground ( प्रतानिनी ), others succulent ( गुल्मिनी ), others twining
or voluble ( मूलाच्छाखां गता लता—cf. Suśruta—लताप्रतानवत्यः गृष्टिमन्त्यः ).
(4) The Oṣadhis (in the narrower sense) are herbaceous plants bearing
fruits with or without flowers, and dying or withering away after fructification.
Kandaśāka (tubers, rhizomes, corms) are included in this ; e.g., Palāṇḍu (the
onion पलाण्डुस्तु सुकन्दकः ), the Lasuna (garlic, महाकन्दः ) ; etc. But the chief
instances are from the grass family ( धान्यं व्रीहि स्तम्बकरी । स्तम्बो गुच्छस्तृणादीनाम् ।
तृणधान्यानि नीवाराः, etc.).
(5) The Tṛṇas, grasses, of which the characteristic is the formation of
gulmas (culms of grasses with annular knots from which leaves spring
—स्तम्बो गुच्छं तृणादीनामषण्डद्रुमगुच्छयोः ).
The bamboo is considered as a sort of giant grass ( तृणध्वजः ). The reeds
are also placed among the grass ( नलादयस्तृणं गर्मुच्छाशाकप्रसुखमपिप्रसुखमग्रन्थात् नीवाराद्याः ).
1 Positive Science, Dr. Seal, p. 170.
2 Manu Saṃhitā, I. 46-48.

SCIENCE OF ARBORI-HORTICULTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA 13
(6) The Palmaceae (including the cocoanut, date, areca, and other palms)
are classed as tree grasses, probably because, like the grasses they are
endogens characterised by spikes and parallel veins ( तृणद्रुमः ).
(7). The Jālanīlī (or Plava) includes all floating species which give the
water a green or blue colour, and finally,
(8) the Śaivāla includes the mosses and the algae¹.
B. METHODS OF PROPAGATION
Various methods of propagation, such as, by seeds (vījaruha), by roots
(mūlaja), by cuttings (skandhaja), by graftings ( स्कन्धं रोपणीया ), by apical portions
(agravīja), by leaves (parṇayoni), and by śaunarudhaja (?) are mentioned in
ancient treatises.
Propagation by seeds is a very common method. The Ṛgveda and the
Atharvaveda mention it in various places. Manu (I, 46, 48) mentions plants
that grow from seeds, and from planted cuttings. The Arthaśāstra (Chap. 24,
p. 141) mentions propagation by bulbous roots and underground stems
(kandavījam), and by cuttings (skandhavījam). The Bṛhatsaṁhitā (Chap. 54)
directs that Kāṇṭhāl, Aśoka, Kadalī, Jambu, Lakuca, Dāḍima, Drākṣā,
Pālibata, Vijapura and Atimuktaka—all these are to be propagated by means
of cuttings ( काण्डरोप्याः ).-(4 & 5). Maskarin Gosāla says, “Sugarcane, bamboo,
reeds, etc., propagate from joints.”
Better than cuttings is the process of grafting as recommended by the
author of the Bṛhatsaṁhitā. There are two methods: one consisting in in-
serting the cutting from one plant into the root of another severed from its
trunk. And the second method consists in inserting the cutting of one tree
into the stem of another—the cutting is called the scion, and the parent plant
is called the stock ( मूलोच्छे देऽथवास्कन्धं रोपणीयाः परं ततः ). 5.
As an instance of the method, called agravīja, i.e. plants whose apices are
only planted as a means of propagation, Betel is mentioned. Bryophyllum
calycinum and Begonias are given as instances of the method where leaves
(parṇayoni) serve as a means of multiplication.
Buddhaghosa in his commentory on Dīgha Nikāya (I, p. 3) gives us the
following illustrations of the methods of propagation :
Mūlabījam (root-seeds)—Haliddiṁ (turmeric), Singiveraṁ (zinziber), Vacaṁ,
Ativiṣaṁ, Kaṭukorohiṇī, Uśīraṁ, etc.
Khaṇḍa-bījam (cuttings)—Assattho, Kacchako, Nigrodha, Pilakkho, Udum-
baro, Kapitthano, etc.
Phalu-bījam ( joints )—as in Reeds, Sugarcane.
Agga-bījam ( buddings )—the plant Samīrana (?), Ajjukaṁ, Hiriveraṁ, etc.
1 Quoted from Seal’s Positive science (1915), pp. 175—173,

14 UPAVANA VINODA
Bīja-bījaṃ (seeds)—Pubbaṇṇaṃ (7 dhānyas-paddy), Apparaṇṇaṃ (Pulses,
Cucurbita, etc.)¹.
V. SOWING OF SEEDS
As for the sowing of seeds Kautilya's Arthaśāstra has the following
prescription :—
“The seeds of grains are to be exposed to mist and heat (tushārapā-
yanamuṣṇaṃ ca) for seven nights; the seeds of Kośi (such as mudga
māsha, etc.) are treated similarly for three nights; the seeds of sugarcane
and the like (kāṇḍabījānaṃ) are plastered at the cut end with the mixture
of honey, clarified butter, the fat of hogs, and cowdung; the seeds of
bulbous roots (kanda) with honey and clarified butter; cotton seeds (asthibīja)
with cowdung; and water pits at the root of trees are to be burnt and
manured with bones and dung of cows on proper occasions,”²
“To ensure inflorescence, etc., (कुसुमयुक्तामिव) Varāhamihira directs that
the seeds before being sown should be treated as follows :—The seeds
should be taken up in the palm greased with ghee and thrown into
milk; on the day following the seeds should be taken out of the milk
with greased fingers and the mass separated into single seeds. This process
is to be repeated on 10 successive days. Then the seeds are to be carefully
rubbed with cowdung, and afterwards steamed in a vessel containing the
flesh of hogs or deer. Then the seeds are to be sown with the flesh, with
the fat of the hogs added in a soil previously prepared by being sown
with sesame³ and dug up or trodden down, and then to be sprinkled
daily with water mixed with kṣi'ra”⁴
“To ensure the growth of Ballaris (i.e, sprouting and the growth of
luxuriant stems and foliage)”, Varāhamihira further directs, “the seeds should
be properly soaked in an infusion of powdered paddy, māsha (bean),
sesame, and barley mixed with decomposing flesh, and then steamed with
haridrā (turmeric). This process will succeed even with the Tintiḍi (Tamarind).
For the Kapittha the seeds should be soaked for about 2 minutes (literally
such length of times as it would take one to make a hundred rhythmic claps
with the palms, तालशब्दः), in a decoction of 8 roots :—Āsphota, Āmalaki,
Dhaba, Vāsika, Vetula, Sūryyavallī, Śyāmā, and Atimuktaka boiled in milk. The
seeds then should be dried in the sun. This process should be repeated for 30
1 The Sumangaa-Vilāsinī, P. T. S. 1, p. 81. D, 1. 1, ll. Cf. Hemchandra—Kuraṇṭyādyā
agrabījā mūlajastūtpalādayaḥ, Parvayônaya ikshvādyah skandhajāḥ sallakīmukhāh. Śālyadayo
bījaruhāḥ sammūrcchajāstṛṇādayaḥ. Syurvanasptikāyasya ṣaḍété mūlajādayaḥ.
2 Chap. 24, 117. p. 145.
3 Cf. Atharva Veda (II. 8. 3.)
4 Chap. Liv, 19-26. Eng. Trans. from Seal's Positive Science.

SCIENCE OF ARBORI-HORTICULTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA 15
days. A circular hole should be dug in the ground, a cubit in diameter and 2
cubits deep, and this should be filled with the milky decoction. When the hole
dries up it should be burnt with fire and then pasted over with ashes, mixed
with ghee and honey. Three inches of soil should now be thrown in, then
the powder of bean, sesame and barley, then again three inches of soil.
Finally washing of fish should be sprinkled and the mud should be beaten
and reduced to a thick consistency, then the seed previously prepared should
be placed in the hole under three inches of soil and fish washings (with fish)
poured. This will lead to luxuriant ramification and foliage which will
excite wonder".
And "the sprouts of seeds, when grown are to be manured with a fresh
haul of minute fishes and irrigated with the milk of Snuhi"'¹
VI. THE PROCESS OF PLANTATION
The process of plantation receives scientific attention probably for the first
time in the Arthaśāstra (Chap. 24, 115) which directs that the Superintendent
of Agriculture should possess the knowledge of the science of agriculture
dealing with the plantation of bushes and trees (kṛṣhitantragulmavṛkṣhāyur-
vedajñaḥ), or be assisted by those who are trained in such sciences.
The Forest Officer and the Superintendents of parks and gardens,
according to Śukrāchāryya, are to know "the causes of growth and develop-
ment of flowers and fruits, the methods of planting and curing the trees
by administering proper soil and water at the suitable time, etc."²
Bṛhatsaṃhitā is more elaborate on the subject of plantation. It enjoins
the following preliminaries :
"One should plant the tree after oneself being pure and after worshipping
the tree with a bath and anointment, and the result will be that the tree will
be graced with luxuriant growth of leaves".
"Uttarā, Rohiṇī, Anurādhā, Chitrā, Mṛgaśirā, Revatī, Mūlā, Viśākhā,
Tiṣya, Śravaṇā, Aśvinī, and the Hastā, are the stars under the in-
fluence of which a tree when planted will flourish"³
In the Agnipurāṇa there are verses of similar import. "One should take or
plant the trees after worshipping the moon and Brahmin, and make sure to
propitiate the five stars—Vāyavya, Hastā, Prājeṣa, Vaiṣṇava, and Mūlā"
"One should perform the work (of plantation) after worshipping Varuṇa,
Viṣṇu, and Parjjanya, the rain god"⁴.
1 Arthaśāstra (Eng Ed.), Chap. 24, 117, p. 145.
2 S. B. H. Śukra. II, 317-319.
3 Chap. 54, 8 & 31, Vol, II, pp. 745.
4 Chap. 281, 6 & 34, Bib. Ind., Vol. II (1876) pp. 42-43.

16 UPAVANA VINODA
Next comes the question—whether all parts or different parts of a plant
are to be planted in different seasons of the year ? Varāhamihira answers :
"In the months of Māgha and Falgoon (शिशिरे) are to be planted the
trees whose branches and leaves are not developed ( अजातशाखान् ), in the
months of Agrahāyaṇa and Pous (हेमन्ते) the plants with just developed
branches ( जातशाखान् ), in the months of Śrāvaṇa and Bhādra (वर्षागमे) plants
with well developed branches ( सुस्कन्धान् )" 6.
Kāśyapa, another authority, is more clear on the above directions.
He says:
"Plant in Śiśira those trees that are with undeveloped branches, and in
Hemanta those with developed branches according to prescribed rules
(विधानतः), and those that are provided with well developed branches (सुस्कन्धाः)
during the rains."
Varāhamihira then directs that "Grafts should be smeared with cowdung.
For transplanting ( अन्यदेशेनीत्वा रोपयेदित्यर्थे ) the plants should be smeared
from root to the top ( आमूलस्कन्धमलिप्तानां ) with ghee (clarified butter), sesame oil,
the honey of the kshudra variety of the bee of the Ushira (Andropogon
laniger, or A. Citrarum), the Viḍaṅga, milk and cowdung"—evidently to
stop loss of water by evaporation. 7.
His final direction in this connection is : "It is best to plant trees at
intervals of 20 cubits, next at 16, and 12 cubits' interval is the minimum that
can be prescribed." 12.
The Agnipurāṇa has also a similar prescription :
"It is best to plant trees at intervals of 20 cubits, an interval of 16 cubits is
next, and worst is the interval of 12 cubits. Closely planted trees become
fruitless (barren).¹
Śukrāchāryya, too, prescribes that the good trees are to be planted at a
distance of 20 cubits from one another, the middling at a distance of 15 cubits,
and the ordinary ones at a distance of 10 cubits, and the youngest at a
distance of 5 cubits." ²
And why this minimum limit ? Varāhamihira answers it in śloka 13 :
"The roots thereby becoming mingled together, will interfere with each other's
function, and will become ill at work, and fruits will not be produced."
(मिश्रैर्मूलैश्च न फलं सम्यग्यच्छन्ति पीडिताः).
VIII. THE RULES FOR WATERING OF PLANTS
Watering of plants after transplantation is referred to both in the Bṛhat-
saṃhitā³ and the Agnipurāṇa⁴ which have the following prescription :
1 Chap. 281, 8 & 9.
2 Śukranīti, IV. iv, 91-93. S.B.H. XIII, p. 165.
3 Chap. 54, sl. 9.
4 Chap. 281, sl. 7.

SCIENCE OF ARBORI-HORTICULTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA 17
"After the trees are planted one should water them in the morning and
evening in summer, at the end of the day in winter, and during the rainy
season only when the earth is dried".
Śukrāchāryya¹ also gives the following directions: "The trees are to be
watered in the morning and evening in summer, every alternate day in
winter, in the fifth part of the day (i.e. afternoon) in spring, and never in the
rainy season."
IX. CONSTRUCTION OF A GARDEN HOUSE
The construction of a garden and its dedication to public use is mentioned
as early as in the Vedic period (R. V, III. 8. 11.). We find Sāṅkhāyana in his
Gṛhyasūtra describing a Vedic ceremony—"The consecration of a garden"
(V. 3, 2, et sqq.).²
According to the Śukranīti (IV. iv, 104) a fair garden should always be laid
out to the left of the dwelling house. But Vātsyāyana's Kāmasūtra has very
nicely and elaborately dealt with this topic. After giving details of the construc-
tion of a house, he says that "attached to it there must be a vṛkṣavāṭikā
(or puṣpavāṭikā), or a garden with wide grounds, if possible, where
flowering plants and fruit trees can grow as well as kitchen vegetables (तत्
भवनमासन्नोदकं वृक्षवाटिकावद्विभक्तकर्मकक्षं निवासं गृहं कारयेत्, 3, p. 114). In the middle of the
ground should be excavated either a well, or a tank, or a lake ( मध्ये कूपं वापिं
दीर्घिकां वा खनायेत् ) This garden is to be looked after by the mistress of the house.
It is the duty of a good housewife, says Vātsyāyana, to procure the seeds of
the common Indian kitchen vegetables and medicinal herbs and plant them
each in its season ( भार्याधिकारिकमधिकरणम्-28. p. 241). On neat and clear spots
in the garden where the ground has been well dressed, the lady of the house
plants beds of greens and vegetables and also clumps of the tall sugarcane,
patches of stunted shrubs of the mustard and similar herbs, and the thickets of
the dark Tamāla ( परिवृतेषु etc. 6, p. 236). The flower garden equally receives
her care; she has to see that it is laid out with beds of plants that yield an
abundance of flowers,—those that regale the nose with their sweet perfume,
like Mallikā. Jāti, or the Nava Mallikā, as well as those that delight the eyes,
like the Japā with its crimson glory, or the Kuraṇṭaka with its unfading yellow
splendour; besides these there should be in this garden rows of shrubs yielding
fragrant leaves and roots like Vallaka and Uśīra ( कुब्जकाम्रतक etc. 7, p. 236). In
the garden there are arbors and sometimes vinegroves ( वृक्षवाटिकां मृद्धीका मण्डपं )
where are built sthaṇḍilas or raised platforms with pleasant and comfor-
table seats for rest or recreation ( वृक्षवाटिकायां च स्थण्डिलानि मनोज्ञानि कारयेत् ),
flowers should be spread on these seats in these sweet sylvan retreats and a
1 Chap. IV. Sec iv, 105-106. S.B.H. XIII. p. 165.
2 S. B. E. 29, pp. 135-136.
3

18 UPAVANA VINODA
swing be hung at a spot well guarded from the sun by its leafy arbor
( स्वास्तीर्णां प्रेङ्खादोला etc-4. p. 116 ). An abundance of various flowers should
also be artfully arranged here and there, over the residential house which
must be kept scrupulously clean, the floors should be beautifully smooth and
polished, so as to soothe the eyes."¹
The Matsyapurāṇa ( Chap. 256, 3-10, pp. 299 ) also enjoins that "some
space should be left all round the house. The front of a building should not
be covered with trees, rather the back of the house should be so covered with
them."²
Apart from the pleasure-gardens adjoining a dwelling-house, the parks and
public gardens used to be regarded as important features of social life in
Ancient India. "They were important enough to have given rise to special
classes of skilled artisans who were given patronage and protection by the State
(Śukra. II. 83—who construct parks, artificial forests and pleasure gardens).³
The parks were meant for health, recreation, enjoyment, etc., and constituted
the spending department of the Government pure and simple (Cf. Kāmandaki
XIV, 27-42). The gardens and parks were in charge of Superintendent
(Ārāmādhipati, II. 240). He was "to know the causes of the growth
(II. 317-19) and development of flowers and fruits, the method of planting
and curing trees by the administration of proper soil and water at the suitable
time, and the various uses of plants as medicinal drugs. He was assisted by
gardeners whose business was to collect flowers and fruits after having duly
nourished the plants with care (Śukra, II. 345-346). The knowledge of
grafting was one of the qualifications of the gardener, and it came to be
regarded as one of the 64 kalās or arts (IV. iii, 144).
X. AS A MEANS OF ASCERTAINING THE PRESENCE OF
WATER IN A DREARY REGION
An elaborate chapter in the Bṛhatsaṁhitā⁴ has been devoted to this
topic :—

1. "Forthwith I will explain the meritorious and reputable art how to
   explore springs to obtain water. Just as there are veins and arteries in the
   human system (carrying blood) up and down, so there are passages ( शिराः )
   within the bowels of the earth at different depths carrying water."
   1 Social life in Ancient India—Chakladar, pp. 151-155 (1929) ; & also Kāmasūtra-Mahesh
   Chandra Pal, Cal. 1313 B.S.
   2 Chap. 256, 3-10. S. B. H. XVI, p. 299.
   3 S. B. H. XVI, p. 169.
   4 Chap. 53, Bṛhatsaṁhitā, Vol. II, pp. 706-742. Some of the verses were translated by
   the author for the Book-Vanaspati, pp. 135-139 ; the rest are taken from Verspreide Geschriften,
   Vol. II, pp. 27-37—by Prof. H. Kern. 1913.

SCIENCE OF ARBORI-HORTICULTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA 19
2. "Although all the water falling from heaven has the same colour and
taste, yet it becomes different in taste, and of various colours, owing to the
differences of soil (cf. Śuśruta, i, 1. 9. sqq. p. 116). Hence an examination
of it may be based on its analogy with the soil."
3. "Indra, Agni, Yama, Nirṛti, Varuṇa, Vāyu, Soma, and Śiva are to
be considered the rulers of the quarters, east, south-east, and so on in
succession."
4. "Eight veins are denominated after the ruler of the region; a ninth
in the centre is called the great vein. There are hundreds of other veins that
issue from different quarters and are known by their own names."
5. "The veins running above the infernal regions and those that are
found in the four cardinal points, are good; those issuing from the inter-
mediate points are evil. I now proceed to describe the distinctive features of
the veins."
6. "If one finds a Vetasa plant in a waterless tract, one is sure to find
water by digging the ground at a distance of 3 cubits to the west of it
half a puruṣa below the earth." (One puruṣa is equal to 120 aṅgulas,
i. e., about 7 ft.)
7. The (further) signs are: at a depth of half a puruṣa a pale yellow
frog, then yellow clay, and a stone protuding from it,—beneath there is water."
8. "If you find a Jambu tree in such a land, dig a hole two puruṣas
deep, 3 cubits to the north of it, and you will find water running in a
vein eastward."
9. "If there be ant-hills close by to the east of the said Jambu tree, you
will surely find sweet water in a pit dug 2 puruṣas deep, 3 cubits to the
south of it.
10. "(The signs are): a fish at a depth of half a puruṣa, and a pigeon-
coloured pebble. There also will be dark clay and much water for a
long time."
11. "If an Udumbara tree is seen, you are sure to find sweet water flowing
in a vein, in a pit dug 2½ puruṣas deep, 3 cubits to the west of it."
12. "If an ant-hill is found to the north of an Arjuna tree, water will be
found there 3½ puruṣas under the earth, at a distance of 3 cubits to the west of
that tree."
13. "(The indications are): a great fair-hued lizard at the depth of half a
puruṣa; gray clay one puruṣa underground; further, black, yellow, white
clay blended with sand; at last water, one may predict, in immense quantity
at a depth of 2½ puruṣas."
14. "If Nirgundi tree is found with an ant-hill, one will find tasteful water
in a pit 2 puruṣas deep, 3 cubits towards the south."
15. "A rohita fish at half a puruṣa, then red brown clay, further pale

20 UPAVANA VINODA
yellow clay, then sand mixed with gravel (are the indications) ; beneath this is
water".
16. "If an anthill appears to the east of a Jujubé tree, one may announce
that there is water on the west side at 3 puruṣas. A fair house-lizard (being
found) at half a puruṣa (is a further indication)."
17. "If a Vadarī and a Palāśa tree are found together, you will find
good water, 3 puruṣas under the earth, 3 cubits towards the west of
the former.".
18. "When a Vilva and an Udumbara tree are found growing together,
you will get water 3½ puruṣas under the surface of the earth at a distance
of 3 cubits from the trees"
19-20. "If an anthill is seen near the oppositifolious fig tree, there is
a water vein running to the west at a depth of 3½ puruṣas. (The signs are) :
whitish clay, and a milk-coloured stone. At 1½ puruṣa will be found a
mouse of a colour like the water-lily".
21-22. "Where in a waterless region a Kampilla tree is seen, a southern
vein runs at the distance of 3 cubits to the west. First appears (as an indication)
clay of a colour like blue-lotus and like pigeon, at one cubit is a fish with the
smell of a he-goat—below there is a little brackish water."
23. "Two cubits more to the northwest of a Bignonia is a water vein
bearing the name of Kumudā and flowing at 3 puruṣas".
24. "If an anthill rises near a Bibhîtaka tree, on the south side a vein is
to be seen on the east at 1½ puruṣa."
25-26. "In case an anthill is found west of the same tree, there will be
a vein in the north, a cubit therefrom and at 4½ puruṣas. The indications
are :) a white scorpion, and a saffron-hued stone, at one puruṣa. In the
westerly direction also (there will be) a vein which will dry up after
3 years."
27. "Where to the north-east of a Kovidāra tree is found a white anthill
with Darva (grass) over it, water will be found between them 5½ puruṣas under
the ground."
28. "As signs are to be mentioned : a snake of the colour of lotus calyx
at one puruṣa, red earth, and a coryndon stone."
29-30. "If an Echites is surrounded by anthill, it may be predicted that
to the north of it is water at 5 puruṣas ; the signs being a yellowish green frog
at half a puruṣa, earth like yellow orpiment and a stone of the colour of a
dark cloud—under it is a northern vein yielding good water."
31. "If a frog is detected living beneath a tree one will surely get water 4½
puruṣas under the ground towards the north of that tree."
32. "A frog being seen under any tree shows that water is to be found at
a cubit's distance at 4½ puruṣas. At one puruṣa will be discovered an

SCIENCE OF ARBORI-HORTICULTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA 21
ichneumon, then dark clay, further on yellow, at last white clay, and a stone
of the colour of a frog."
33-34. "In case a snake's abode appears standing south of a Karañja
tree, there is a vein in the south at 2 cubits, at 3½ puruṣas' depth. At half a
puruṣa is a tortoise, and there will then be discovered, first an eastern vein,
further on a northern vein with sweet water, beneath lies a yellowish green
stone; then again water."
35-36. "If an anthill inhabited by a serpent is found to the north of a
Madhuka tree, you will get water at a distance of 5 cubits from the tree, 7½
puruṣas under the ground. (The signs are) :—first a big snake at one puruṣa,
then deep purple earth, and a stone of the colour of dolichos. Beneath is an
eastern vein supplying water which is always foaming."
37. "Where a smooth anthill combined with sacrificial and bent grass
stands south of a Tilaka tree, an eastern vein will be discovered in a westerly
direction at 5 puruṣas'"
38-39. "In case an abode of snakes is stationed west of a Nauclea,
there is water 3 cubits from it at 5¾ puruṣas. It is a northern vein that flows
there having a smell like iron, and inexhaustible. (As signs will be found) :—
a gold-tinged frog at one puruṣa, and then yellow clay."
40. "If you find a palmyra tree, or a cocoanut tree, with anthills, you will
have a vein of good water flowing at a distance of 6 cubits to the west of
either of the trees 4 puruṣas under the ground."
41-42. "On perceiving an abode of snakes on the west side of wood-
apple trees one may predict that water will be discovered at 7 cubits' distance
by digging 5 puruṣas deep. (The signs are :) a spotted snake at one
puruṣa, black clay and a protruding stone, and white clay. Underneath runs a
vein from the west, then another from the north."
43-44. "Should a Jujube tree or a snake's abode appear to the left
(i. e. northwards) of an Asmāntaka tree water will be found 6 cubits distant,
in a northernly direction at 3½ puruṣas ; (the indications being) a tortoise at one
puruṣa, a grey stone, clay mingled with sand. The first vein issues from the
southern quarter ; then another from the north."
45-46. "Should an anthill rise on the left side (i. e. northwards) of a
yellow sandal tree there will be water 3 cubits to the east from thence at 5¾
puruṣas. (The indications are :) a black snake at one puruṣa, yellow clay
and a emerald-like stone ; then black earth. First there will be found a vein
coming from the west, afterwards another from the south."
47. "Where in a waterless region, the characteristics of an aquatic vege-
tation, or graceful Andropogan and bent grass, are conspicuous, there is water
at one puruṣa."
48. "Bhārgi, Tribṛtā, Danti, Śūkarapādi, Takṣmana, and Navamallikā

22 UPAVANA VINODA
denote water to be near, 2 cubits from thence, to the south at 3
puruṣas."
49. "There is water by the trees that are sappy, have long branches, or
very dwarfish, or very spreading. And there will be no water near the trees
that are sickly, have unhealthy leaves, and vapid."
50-51. "Water will be found 4½ puruṣas below the ground at a
distance of 3 cubits to the north of the following trees surrounded by
anthills : Tilaka, Āmrātaka, Varuṇaka, Bhallātaka, Vilva, Tinduka, Aṅkola,
Piṇḍīra, Śirīṣa, Arjuna, Paruṣaka, Vañjula and Atibalā."
52. "Where a plot is grown with grass in the midst of a grassless plain,
or where a grassless spot is conspicuous in the midst of a soil abounding
with grass, a water-vein is indicated; or one may predict that a treasure
will be discovered at the spot."
53. "It a thorny tree (e. g. Khadira) is found in the midst of thornless
ones (like Palāśa), or a thornless tree is found in the midst of thorny ones,
water will be found 3 puruṣas under the ground at a distance of 3 cubits
to the west of such a tree."
54. "Where the soil, being struck by the feet sounds deep there is water
at 3½ puruṣas; the vein issues from the north."
55. "If one of the branches of a tree is bent or faded, you are sure
to find water beneath the branch after digging 3 puruṣas."
56. "A tree that shows unnatural symptoms in its fruits and blossoms,
points to a vein, 3 cubits to the east, at 4 puruṣas; under the surface (will
appear) a stone and yellow earth."
57. "If a Kaṇṭakārika plant is found without thorns and with white
flowers, water will surely be found under it at a depth of 3½ puruṣas.
58. "Where in a waterless country a betelnut tree shows two tops,
it may be asserted for certain that on the west side there will be water at
3 puruṣas."
59. "In case you see a white blossoming Pterospermum or Butea there
will be water 2 cubits to the south at 3 puruṣas."
60. "Where the ground steams or smokes, there is water at 2 puruṣas,
and it may be stated that the vein will yield an abundant supply of water."
61. "Where on a single spot of a field, the sprouting corn perishes,
or looks thin and exceedingly pale, there is a great vein at 2 puruṣas."
62. "Now am I to set forth how a vein is discovered in a desert
country, where the water-veins run below the earth's surface in the guise of
camel's neck (i. e. syphon)."
63-64. "If an anthill is seen northeast of a Pīlu tree, there will
be water to the west; you may hold it for certain that the vein flowing in
the north is at the depth of 5 puruṣas. The first indication is a frog,