द ब्यूटीफुल ट्री: १८वीं सदी में भारत की स्वदेशी गुरुकुल शिक्षा (धर्मपाल)

Annexure E
History of Education in the Panjab since Annexation and in 1882
LEITNER ON INDIGENOUS EDUCATION IN THE PANJAB
(EXTRACTS)
GENERAL:
I am about to relate—I hope without extenuation or
malice—the history of the contact of a form of European with
one of Asiatic civilisation; how, in spite of the best intentions, the
most public-spirited officers, and a generous Government that
had the benefit of the traditions of other provinces, the true
education of the Panjab was crippled, checked, and is nearly
destroyed; how opportunities for its healthy revival and
development were either neglected or perverted; and how, far
beyond the blame attaching to individuals, our system stands
convicted or worse than official failure. Whether it is possible to
rouse to renewed exertion, on behalf of its own education, the
most loyal population that has ever been disappointed, is a
question which the following pages will only partially attempt to
answer. Much will of course, depend on the wise adaptation of
the noble principle just propounded—of ‘local self-government’—
to a department of the Administration,—that of education,—in
which, above all others, it can be introduced with perfect safety
and the greatest political advantage.
Respect for learning has always been the redeeming feature
of ‘the East’. To this the Panjab has formed no exception. Torn
by invasion and civil war, it ever preserved and added to
educational endowments. The most unscrupulous chief, the
avaricious money-lender, and even the freebooter, vied with the
small landowner in making peace with his conscience by
founding schools and rewarding the learned. There was not a
mosque, a temple, a dharmasala that had not a school attached
to it, to which the youth flocked chiefly for religious education.
There were few wealthy men who did not entertain a Maulvi,
Pandit or Guru, to teach their sons, and along with them the
sons of friends and dependents. There were also thousands of
secular
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schools, frequented alike by Mahomedans, Hindus and Sikhs, in
which Persian or Lunde was taught. There were hundreds of
learned men who gratuitously taught their co-religionists, and
sometimes all-comers, for the sake of God-‘Lillah’. There was not
a single villager who did not take a pride in devoting a portion of
his produce to a respected teacher. In respectable Mahomedan
families husbands taught their wives, and these their children;
nor did the Sikhs prove in that respect to be unworthy of their
appellation of ‘learners and disciples’. In short, the lowest
computation gives us 3,30,000 pupils (against little more than
1,90,000 at present) in the schools of the various denominations
who were acquainted with reading, writing, and some method of
computation; whilst thousands of them belonged to Arabic and
Sanskrit colleges, in which Oriental Literature and systems of
Oriental Law, Logic, Philosophy, and Medicine were taught to the
highest standards. Tens of thousands also acquired a proficiency
in Persian, which is now rarely reached in Government and
aided schools or colleges. Through all schools there breathed a
spirit of devotion to education for its own sake and for its
influence on the character and on religious culture; whilst even
the sons of Banyas who merely learnt what they absolutely
required in order to gain a livelihood looked with respect,
amounting to adoration, on their humble Pandhas, who had
taught them the elements of two ‘Rs’.
We have changed all this. The annexation disturbed the
minds of believers in Providence, and all that was respectable
kept, as much as possible, aloof from the invader,—just as the
best Englishman would not be the first to seek the favour of a
foreign conqueror.
CLASSIFICATION OF INDIGENOUS SCHOOLS
I. SIKH INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

1. Gurmukhi Schools
   II. MOHAMMEDAN INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
2. Maktabs
3. Madrasas, religious and secular
4. Koran Schools.
   III. HINDU INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
5. Chatsalas (for the trading community)
6. Patshalas (religious)
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7. Patshalas (semi-religious)
8. Secular Schools of various kinds and grades
   IV. MIXED INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
9. Persian Schools
10. Vernacular Schools
11. Anglo-Vernacular Schools
    V. FEMALE INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
12. (a) Female Schools for Sikh girls
    (b) -do- Mohammedan girls
    (c) Instruction at Hindu homes
    With a more minute subdivision the indigenous schools might
    have to be classified as follows:-
    I. MAKTABS OR MADRASAS
13. Arabic Schools and Colleges (of various grades and
    specialities)
14. Perso-Arabic Schools and Colleges (of various grades
    and specialities)
15. Koran Schools (where merely or chiefly the Koran is
    read)
16. Perso-Koran Schools
17. Koran-Arabic Schools
18. Perso-Koran-Arabic Schools
19. Persian Schools
20. Persian-Urdu Schools
21. Persian-Urdu-Arabic Schools
22. Arabic Medical Schools
23. Perso-Arabic Medical Schools
    II. GURMUKHI SCHOOLS
24. Gurmukhi Schools
25. Gurmukhi and Lande Schools
    III. MAHAJANI SCHOOLS
26. Lande Schools of different kinds (Chatsalas)
27. Nagari-Lande Schools (Chatsalas)
28. Perso-Lande Schools
    IV. PATSHALAS
29. Nagari-Sanscrit Schools
30. Sanscrit religious Schools
    343

19. Sanscrit secular literary Schools (cultivating various
    branches)
20. Sanscrit semi-secular Schools (cultivating various
    branches)
21. Sanscrit Medical Schools (Chiefly)
22. Hindi-Sanscrit Schools
23. Sanscrit astrological or astronomical Schools (Chiefly)
    V. FEMALE INDIGENOUS SCHOOLS
    (classified as above)
    LIST OF SANSCRIT BOOKS USED
    Balbodh Akshar dipika
    I. GRAMMAR
    Saraswat Manorama
    Chandrika Bhashya
    Laghu Kaumudi Paniniya Vyakaran
    Kaumudi Siddhant Kaumudi
    Shekar Prakrita Prakasa
    II. LEXICOLOGY
    Amar Kosh Malini Kosh
    Halayudh
    III. POETRY, THE DRAMA AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY
    Raghu Vans Mahabharat
    Megh Duta Venisanhara
    Magh Sakuntala
    Kirat Arjun Naishadha Charita
    Ramayan Mrichhakatika
    Sri Mad Bhagwat Kumara Sambhava
    and other Puranas
    IV. RHETORIC
    Kavya Dipik Kavya Prakash
    Sahitya Darpana Dasu Rupa
    Kuvlayanund
    V. MATHEMATICS, ASTRONOMY, AND ASTROLOGY
    Siddbant Shiromani Nil Kanthi
    Mahurta Chintamani Brihat Jatak
    Shighra Bodh Parasariya
    Garbh Lagana
    344

VI. MEDICAL SCIENCE
Sham Raj Nighant
Susruta Sharang Dhar
Charaka Bhashya Parichehed
Madhava Nidan Vagbhat
VII. LOGIC
Nyaya Sutra Vritti Gada dhari
Vyutpattivad Tarkalankar
Tark Sangrah Kari kavali
VIII.VEDANT
Atma Bodh Sarirak
Panch Dashi
IX. LAW
Manu Smriti Parasara Smriti
Yagya Valk Gautama
Mitakshara
X. PHILOSOPHY
Sankhya Tatwa Kaumudi Patanjali, Sutra Britti Sutra
with Bhashya
Sankhya Pravachan Bhashya Vedanta, Vedantsar (see
Yoga Sutra also above)
Vaiseshika, Siddhant Mimansa, Sutra with
Muktavali Sutra with Bhashya Artha Sangraha
a commentary
XI. PROSODY
Srut Bodh Vritta Ratnakar
XII. PROSE LITERATURE
Hitopadesa Vasavadatta
Dasa Kumara Charita
XIII. RELIGION
Rigveda Sanhita (rare) Samaveda, Mantra Bhaga
Yajurveda, Shukla Yajur Chhandasya Archika (very
Vajasneyi Sanhita rare)
345

Annexure F
Correspondence between Mahatma Gandhi and
Sir Philip Hartog
MAHATMA GANDHI ON INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
...That does not finish the picture. We have education of this
future state. I say without fear of my figures being challenged
successfully, that today India is more illiterate than it was fifty
or a hundred years ago, and so is Burma, because the British
administrators, when they came to India, instead of taking hold
of things as they were, began to root them out. They scratched
the soil and began to look at the root, and left the root like that,
and the beautiful tree perished. The village schools were not
good enough for the British administrator, so he came out with
his programme. Every school must have so much paraphernalia,
building, and so forth. Well, there were no such schools at all.
There are statistics left by a British administrator which show
that, in places where they have carried out a survey, ancient
schools have gone by the board, because there was no
recognition for these schools, and the schools established after
the European pattern were too expensive for the people, and
therefore they could not possibly overtake the thing. I defy
anybody to fulfill a programme of compulsory primary education
of these masses inside of a century. This very poor country of
mine is very ill able to sustain such an expensive method of
education. Our state would revive the old village schoolmaster
and dot every village with a school both for boys and girls.
Question (SIR PHILIP HARTOG): Would Mr Gandhi give his
authority for the statement that literacy had diminished in India
during the last fifty years?
Mr Gandhi replied that his authority was the Punjab
Administration Reports, and said that he had published in
Young India a study of the Punjab educational statistics.
SIR PHILIP HARTOG: Would Mr Gandhi explain why the
literacy figure was fourteen percent of the men and only two
percent of the women, and why illiteracy was higher in Kashmir
and Hyderabad than in British India?
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Mr Gandhi replied that the women’s education had been
neglected, to the shame of the men. He could only conjecture,
with regard to the figures for Kashmir, that if illiteracy was
greater there, it was due to the negligence of the ruler or because
the population was predominantly Mohammedan, but he
thought that, as a matter of fact, it was six of the one and half a
dozen of the other.
—from International Affairs, London, November 1931: from
a long speech by Mahatma Gandhi, on October 20, 1931
held under the auspices of the Royal Institute of
International Affairs at Chatham House, London; the
meeting was attended by influential Englishmen and
English-women drawn from all parts of England. Lord
othian, who was one of the British chairmen at the Round
Table Conference on India, presided at this meeting.
(The above text is copied from
Collected Works, Vol.48, pp.199-200, 201-2)
· · ·
5, Inverness Gardens,
W.8.
21st October, 1931
M.K. Gandhi, Esq.,
Round Table Conference,
St. James Palace,
S.W.1.
Dear Mr Gandhi,
I understood you to say last night at the Royal Institute of
International Affairs that you could prove on the evidence of
British officials that literacy had diminished in British India in
the last fifty or hundred years. In reply to my request for the
precise authority for this statement you mentioned a Punjab
Administration Report, (without, however, giving the date,) and
said that what had happened in the Punjab must have happened
in the rest of India. You mentioned, too, an article in ‘Young
India’, but also without giving its date. The subject is one in
which I have taken a deep interest for some years, and I should
be grateful, therefore, if you would very kindly give me precise
references to the printed documents on which your statements
were based, so that I may consult them.
You will, I feel sure, forgive me for pointing out that the
347

assumption that what happens in the educational world in the
Punjab necessarily happens in the rest of India is a mistaken
one. It is generally recognised that the Punjab has made more
rapid advances in primary education in the last 10 or 15 years
than any other province in India.
In reply to my question about the inferiority of the literacy
in the two largest Indian States, Kashmir, (Predominantly
Mohammedan with a Hindu ruler), and Hyderabad,
(Predominantly Hindu with a Mohammedan ruler), you
suggested that perhaps Kashmir was educationally backward
because it was predominantly Mohammedan, but this left the
backwardness of Hyderabad as compared with British India
unexplained. Probably the facts had not been previously brought
to your notice.
If you should find ultimately that the inference from your
remarks that backwardness in literacy and education has been
due to British administration in India was unjustified, I feel
certain that you would wish to correct your statement.
I am
Yours sincerely,
Sd/-Philip Hartog
M.K. Gandhi Esq.,
Round Table Conference,
St. James' Palace,
S.W.1
. . .
88, Knightsbridge,
London, W.
23rd October, 1931
Dear Friend,
Inadvertently, I have no doubt, you have omitted to sign
your letter, but as the address is fully given, I am hoping that
this letter will reach you.
You will realise that I could not off-hand give you the dates,
but since you would gladly study the whole question, I would
find out the numbers of 'Young India' in which the articles
appeared and send the references to you. I shall also find out
what is possible to prove with reference to the other provinces,
apart from the deductions that I have drawn from the Punjab.
Meanwhile, I have no difficulty in drawing the deduction from
the rest
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of the Provinces from the examples of the Punjab and Burma.
Whatever may be the strides made by the Punjab during the past
five or ten years, cannot affect the argument that I have
advanced to you.
About Kashmir, as I said in reply, mine was merely a
conjecture, but since you are so interested in the question, I
shall try and find out the true state of education in Kashmir.
You are quite right in feeling certain that if there were any
error in my reasoning or the facts that I stated, I should imme-
diately correct them, and whilst I should try to verify more fully
the statements that I made, you will also on your part oblige me
by giving me such information as may be in your possession and
as may help me to understand the truth.
Yours sincerely,
Sd/- M.K. Gandhi
P.M.C.
. . .
5,Inverness Gardens,W.8.
27th October 1931
Dear Mr Gandhi,
I am much obliged by your very friendly letter of 23rd
October and must apologise for having omitted to sign my own of
the 22nd. I must have signed the carbon copy instead of the
copy sent.
I shall be grateful for the references to the articles in
‘Young India’ which you promise me, and I will verify them and
give you my opinion of them.
Table 55
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In reply to your request for the sources of my own
knowledge of the history of education in India, I would refer you
to the sources quoted in the report of the Calcutta University
Commission of which I was Chairman (Interim Report of the
Indian Statutory Commission, H.M. Stationery Office, Cmd.
3407,1929), and especially to the literacy figures, taken from the
census reports and quoted on p.382 of Vol.1 of the Simon
Report, which I subjoin:—
In 1911 the figure for British India was 12%; and in 1881
8%. It has always to be remembered that these percentages are
adversely affected by the existence of nearly 20,000,000
aboriginals and hill tribes, as well as by the educational
backwardness of a far greater number of ‘untouchables’.
You will notice that the figure for males for British India
increased from 8% in 1881 (50 years ago) to 12% in 1911 and
14.4% in 1921, not a rapid increase, but still an increase.
In Travancore and Cochin you have a large number of
Indian Christians. In Baroda the system of compulsory primary
education taken from Western models, began to be introduced in
1893.
The census figures, as you well see, are in complete
contradiction with your assertion that literacy has diminished in
British India in the last fifty years.
The figures for Hyderabad (preponderatingly Hindu with a
Mohammedan ruler), and for Kashmir (preponderatingly Muslim
with a Hindu ruler) seem inexplicable if you attribute illiteracy to
British administration.
I would refer you also to the chapter on Education which I
have contributed to ‘Modern India’ (Oxford University Press,
1931), and finally to a work by an advanced Indian political
thinker, the late Lala Lajpat Rai (National Education in India,
1920), whose views, though in many ways opposed to your own,
I am sure you would find interesting.
I welcome your decision, of which I felt assured
beforehand, that you will immediately correct your statement, if
you are convinced that it is erroneous, and I look forward to your
doing so.
Believe me,
Yours sincerely,
Sd/- Philip Hartog
350

5,Inverness Gardens,W.8.
13th November, 1931
M.K. Gandhi, Esq.
88, Knightsbridge, W.
Dear Mr Gandhi,
I wrote on October 27th in reply to your letter to me of
October 23rd, but have not yet received from you the promised
references to the documents (a Punjab Administration Report
and the articles in ‘Young India’) on which your statement that
literacy had diminished in British India during the last fifty
years was based.
In case my letter of the 27th may have miscarried I enclose
a copy of it, and am sending this to you by registered post.
I am,
Yours sincerely,
Sd/- Philip Hartog
M.K. Gandhi, Esq.
88, Knightsbridge
W.
. . .
88, Knightsbridge, S.W.1.
(Post-Mark Nov. 14, 1931)
(To Sir Philip Hartog, London)
Dear Friend,
Mr Gandhi has your letter of the 27th October. He has now
been able to secure the files of ‘Young India’ for 1920 and wants
me to send you the enclosed copies.
Yours sincerely,
Mahadeo Desai.
(see following page)
351

COPY OF ARTICLE TAKEN FROM ‘YOUNG INDIA’
8TH DECEMBER 1920
THE DECLINE OF MASS EDUCATION IN INDIA
(By Daulat Ram Gupta, M.A.)
It is generally believed that from the time the British Government
have taken in their hands the duty of educating the people of
India, in accordance with the Parliamentary dispatch of 1854,
the country has made remarkable progress in education, in so
far as the number of schools, the number of scholars, and the
standard of education are concerned. It will be my business to
prove, that we have made no such progress in these respects,—a
fact which will be startling to some and a revelation to others—
and in so far as our mass education is concerned, we have
certainly made a downward move since India has passed to the
British Crown.
The advent of British Rule found in India systems, of
education of great antiquity and value existing among both
Hindus and Mussalmans, in each case closely bound up with
their religious institutions. There was not a mosque, a temple, a
Dharamsala, that had not a school attached to it. To give and
receive instruction was regarded as a religious duty. Schools of
learning were formed in centres containing a considerable high
caste population, where Pandits gave instruction in Sanskrit,
grammar, logic, philosophy and law.
For the lower classes, village schools were scattered over
the country in which a good rudimentary education was given to
the children of petty traders, cultivators and landlords. The very
fact that every family of the DWIJA (twice-born) and every guild
of the mixed castes, and every village of any importance, had its
own priest, and that it was enjoined upon the priest to teach as
well as to minister to religion, leads one to the belief, on strong
prima facie grounds, that education was very widely diffused
among the people.
The higher education of the Mussalmans was in the hands
of men of learning. Schools were attached to mosques and
shrines and supported by the state grant in cash or land, or by
private liberality. The course of study in a Muslim Madrassa
included grammar, rhetoric, logic, literature, jurisprudence, and
science.
Thus, in Madras, in an inquiry conducted by Sir Thomas
Munro in 1826, it is stated that in 1826 there were 11,758
352

indigenous schools and 740 colleges giving instruction to
1,57,664 boys, and 4,023 girls. (Vide Education Commission
Report by the Madras Provincial Committee 1884). It is therefore
estimated, that considering the population in that period
(123,50,941) elementary indigenous education was imparted to
about one-fourth of the boys of school-going age. It was also
estimated that there was at least one school to every 1,000 of the
population. ‘But as only a few females were taught in schools, we
may reckon one school to every 500 of the population.’
Mr Munro, (as he then was) further supplements this
estimate of the spread of education with the following
observation:—
I am, however, inclined to estimate the portion of the male
population, who receive school education, to one-third than
one-fourth of the whole, because we have no return of the
numbers taught at home.
In 1826, such was the state of purely indigenous education
in a province which had been under British influence for over a
century and was, therefore, fast disintegrating old institutions
and adopting new ones.
In Bengal, Mr W. Adam, conducted a similar inquiry and
found that in 1835 ‘a network of primitive Vernacular schools
existed throughout Bengal’, and he estimated their number to be
about one lakh. The Sadler Commission has pointed out that ‘no
attempt was made to develop these schools.’ Government
preferred to devote its energies to secondary and higher schools,
on the theory that, if Western education were introduced among
the upper classes, it would ‘filter down’ by a natural process to
the lower classes. Practically all the public funds available for
education were expended on schools and colleges founded and
controlled by Government, and nothing was spent upon
indigenous schools, and as rent-free lands attached to these
schools were resumed, the schools were left without any
financial aid and naturally collapsed.
The purpose of all this was political. Sir Sankaran Nair in
his masterly Minute of Dissent writes:—
Efforts were made by the government to confine higher
education and secondary education, leading to higher
education, to boys in affluent circumstances...Rules were
made calculated to restrict the diffusion of education
generally and among the poorer boys in particular.
Conditions for “recognition” for “grants”—stiff and
various—were laid down and enforced, and the non-
fulfillment of any one of these
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conditions was liable to be followed by serious
consequences. Fees were raised to a degree, which,
considering the circumstances of the classes that resort to
schools, were abnormal. When it was objected that
minimum fee would be a great hardship to poor students
the answer was such students had no business to receive
that kind of education. Managers of private schools who
remitted fees in whole or in part, were penalised by reduced
grants-in-aid.
Thus, by this policy, education was only confined to the
well-to-do classes.
‘They it was believed would give no trouble to the
Government.’ Sri Sankaran Nair, therefore, concludes that,
It is the universal belief, and there is little doubt that facts
unfortunately tend to prove it, that primary English
Education for the masses, and higher education for the
higher classes are discouraged for political reasons. Higher,
professional, industrial and technical education is
discouraged to favour English industries and recruitment
in England of English officials.
In the Punjab the state of indigenous education was much
better because of the special efforts made by Maharaja Ranjit
Singh to promote learning. Dr Leitner, who was the Principal of
the Oriental College and Government College, Lahore, and who
also officiated for some time as Director of Public Instruction,
Punjab, conducted a very thorough going inquiry into the state
of indigenous education in the Punjab, and in his book on the
‘History of Indigenous Education’ in the Punjab, he writes:—
I am about to relate—I hope without extenuation or
malice—the history of the contact of a form of European,
with one of the Asiatic, civilisation; how in spite of the best
intentions, the most public-spirited officers, and a
generous government that had the benefit of the traditions
of other provinces, the true education of the Punjab was
crippled, checked and is nearly destroyed; how
opportunities for its healthy revival and development were
either neglected or perverted; and how, far beyond the
blame attaching to individuals, our system stands
convicted of worse then official failure.
He therefore writes:—
I fear that my account of the decline of indigenous
education in the Punjab may offend some prejudices and
oppose
354

some interests. I have to appeal to rulers to put themselves
in the position of the ruled, if they wish to understand
them...and both the writer of these pages and the reader
must endeavour to divest themselves of every
preconception. Indeed, the man has so often described the
struggle with the lion, that it would be well to sketch a
picture which the lion might have drawn had he been a
painter.
Referring to the educational glory of the Punjab before
annexation he writes:
Respect for learning has always been the redeeming feature
of the East. To this the Punjab formed no exception. Torn
by invasion and war, it ever preserved and added to educa-
tional endowments. The most unscrupulous chief, the
avaricious money lender, and even the free-booter, vied
with the small land-owner in making peace with his
conscience by founding schools and rewarding the learned.
There was not a mosque, a temple, a Dharamsala, that had
not a school attached to it, to which the youth flocked
chiefly for religious education. There were few wealthy men
who did not entertain a Maulvi, Pandit, or Guru to teach
their sons, and along with them the sons of friends and
dependents. There were also thousands of secular schools,
frequented alike by Mahomedans, Hindus and Sikhs, in
which Persian or Hindi was taught. There were hundreds of
learned men who gratuitously taught their co-religionists,
and sometimes all comers, for the sake of God, “Lillah”.
There was not a single village who did not take a pride in
devoting a portion of his produce to a respected teacher. In
respectable Mahomedan families husbands taught their
wives, and these their children; nor did the Sikhs prove in
that respect to be unworthy of the appellation of “Learners
and disciples”. In short the lowest computation gives us
3,30,000 pupils in the schools of the various
denominations who were acquainted with reading, writing
and some method of computation, whilst thousands of
them belonged to Arabic and Sanskrit Colleges, in which
oriental literature and system of oriental law, logic,
philosophy and medicine were taught to the highest
standards. Tens of thousand also acquired a proficiency in
Persian which is now rarely reached in government and
aided schools and colleges. Through all schools there
breathed a spirit of devotion to education for its own sake,
and for its influence on the character and on religious
culture; whilst even the sons of Banias who merely
355

learnt what they absolutely required in order to gain a
livelihood, looked with respect, amounting to adoration, on
their humble Pandhas, who taught them the elements of
two ‘Rs’.
Dr Leitner further describes the state of feeling with respect
to education in the Punjab. He writes:
The Punjab is classic ground. Not merely the celebrated
country between Sutlej and the Jumna, but also the whole
province teems with noble recollections. The history of its
culture will tell us of a simple worship...........of an ardent
republicanism allied to the most chivalrous devotion to
chiefs, of capacity for self-Government not equalled
elsewhere, and above all, of the universal respect for
learning and of the general spread of education. The priest
was a professor and poet, and education was a religious,
social and professional duty.
It is, therefore, our belief, founded on authentic historical
data, that before annexation, every Punjab village had a school
of its own.
In every Indian village which has retained anything of its
form...the rudiments of knowledge are sought to be
imparted; there is not a child, except those of the outcastes
(who form no part of the community), who is not able to
read, to write, to cypher; in the last branch of learning,
they are confessedly most proficient.’ (Vide BRITISH INDIA
by Ludlow).
Dr Leitner estimated that in 1854-55 there were at least 30
thousand schools, and if we count at least 13 pupils per school,
the total number of pupils will amount to 4 lakhs. Dr Leitner
writes:
‘The village school would contain 3,00,000 pupils, but
there are reasons for estimating larger number.’
Further, in backward districts like that of Hushiarpur, the
Settlement Report of 1852, shows a school to every 1,965 male
inhabitants (adults and non-adults), which may be contrasted
with the present proportion of one government or aided school to
every 9,028 or one school to 2,818.7 inhabitants including the
present number of ascertained indigenous schools throughout
the province, a significant contrast to the proportion of one
school to every 1,783 inhabitants in the most backward division
of the Punjab in 1849 when brought under British Rule after a
period of confusion following on war and annexation.
356

Such was the state of affairs in 1882, but the contrast will
become more startling if we look at the figures already repro-
duced in ‘Young India’.
A mere glance at that statement will show how the
indigenous education has declined, and how stagnant the state
of education has remained from 1882 to 1918-19. In a period of
37 years the government has done nothing whatsoever for mass
education. In a period less than this, England was able to
educate the whole of its populations; in a period considerably
less than this, America could give education to a population
without any records of civilisation or intellectual stamina; and in
a period equal to this, Japan was able to work out its destiny.
But such is the way of doing things in India that during all this
time nothing was done except to shift schools from one place to
another, to shift the expenses of education from one source to
another, to shift the responsibility from man to man; in fact to
make shifts as best as could be done.
Such in brief is the history of the decline of indigenous
education, and as to how it was crushed in the Punjab will form
the subject matter of the next article.
. . .
COPY OF ARTICLE TAKEN FROM ‘YOUNG INDIA’
OF 29TH DECEMBER 1920
HOW INDIGENOUS EDUCATION WAS CRUSHED IN
THE PUNJAB
1849-1886
The Punjab was the last of all the Provinces of India to come
under the direct influence of the English. The Honourable the
East India Company had during a couple of centuries, extended
their sphere of influence from the Cape to the Jamuna; but its
administrators never thought it worth the trouble to go beyond
the Moghul Court. The Moghul Court itself was jealous of any
encroachments upon its northern province—the gateway to
Kabul—which they still looked upon as their ancestral home.
When the descendants of Aurangzeb began to bungle
things in this province, the invaders from the North and the
people from within threw in a state of anarchy and misrule.
Under such circumstances the hardy Sikh began to realise his
own importance and individuality. Ever afterwards till 1849, the
Sikhs kept the
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banks of Beas free from all diplomatic or martial overtures. They
preferred their own incapacity to govern to an established order
of things where their liberty would be restrained and their
religion interfered with. The Sikh like the Hindu is essentially
devout, and his devotion always lands him on the side of
conservatism; of respect for the past, its institutions and
traditions.
So that, when the reins of government and authority
passed into the hands of the Sikhs, both from lack of initiative
and requirements of diplomacy, they left untouched all the old
village institutions. Whereas, British administrators in other
provinces were changing and modifying ancient ways and
manners to suit their own conceptions, the Sikh Sirdar was
content to let things have their own way, so long as he got the
revenue that he wanted. The result of it all was that a network of
village schools which traditions of a thousand years past had
spread all over India, was in its full strength here. If any change
was made at all, it was to add the Granthi or Bhai, to the Maulvi
and the Pandit. Instead of there being two traditional teachers of
village youth, now there became three.
The village education was an essential part of the village
administration and the provision for it was made in the village
expenses. The ‘school-master’s field’, the ‘watchman’s field’ never
disappear from the village books. There was in every village in
the Punjab, a school of some sort, in which elementary
education, having a direct bearing on the secular needs of the
pupil, was imparted either free of cost, or at a nominal rate of
monthly fee. In addition to these schools, there were spread all
over the province ‘colleges’ of various grades and denominations
in which the ancient ideals of the academies were kept alive and
potent. There were centres of advanced studies of metaphysics,
astronomy, mathematics, grammar, philosophy and other
sciences.
That much good was done to all sections of the community
by these indigenous schools and colleges, is beyond doubt a fact
recognised even by the bitter antagonists of the indigenous
system. From the advanced ‘colleges’, in which classical
education (Arabic and Sanskrit) was imparted to students of
mature age and thought, to the elementary Mahajani, Sharafi,
and Lande Schools, there was a very large variety of quasi-
classical vernacular and technical schools. The teachers always
kept in view the requirements of individual students and the
profession they were qualifying for.

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There was no class instruction, as in our schools reducing
all intellects to the same level and retarding the industrious for
the sake of the dullard. But recitations in Sanskrit and the
system of repeating lessons in chorus on the dispersion of the
school encouraged such emulation as may be necessary, whilst
the separate instruction of the pupil and his devotion to his work
during the time that he was not reading with his tutor
stimulated those habits of reflection and of private study, in
which the students of present day schools are sadly deficient.
Then again when the student grew older, he travelled to learn
philosophy under one tutor, and law under another, much in the
same way as students of German Universities visit various seats
of learning in order to hear, say, international law at Heidelberg,
the Pandects at Berlin.
It would not be without interest to point out that from the
humblest beginnings in education up to the highest courses in
Hindu metaphysics and science great wisdom was displayed.
Traces of the ‘Kindergarten system’ are still found. The simplest
methods for arresting and keeping attention were resorted to and
the moral and mental capacities of children, according to their
spheres of life, were everywhere carefully studied and cultivated.
As for the mode of instruction, it also bore in every one of its
features the emphatically practical as well as ideal aim of the
Hindu legislator.
That the above statement is not an unsupported assertion,
I will quote a paragraph from the first educational despatch of
the Court of Directors which was issued on the 3rd June 1814.
The Directors point out that ‘the indigenous village schools
are a part of the village system and that they have formed a
model to schools in England.’ Again they point out ‘this
venerable and benevolent institution of the Hindus is
represented to have withstood the shock of revolutions, and to
its operation is ascribed the general intelligence of the native.’
In 1848 the Government of the Punjab passed into the
hands of the East India Company. The first Board of
Administration in the Punjab recognised the full value of the rich
educational legacy, which they inherited from the decaying and
disintegrating Sikh constitution. Recognising the widespread
character of the indigenous education, and the necessity of
keeping up old educational traditions alive, Sir John and Sir
Henry Lawrence defined their policy in matters of education in
the following words:—
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‘We intend to set up one school, if not in every village, at
least in every circle of villages, so that at least there should be
something throughout the land in which the children do attend
some rudimentary school.’
How far policy was actually carried out will be explained in
another article.
· · ·
5,Inverness Gardens,W.8.
17 November 1931
Dear Mr Gandhi,
I beg to acknowledge with thanks the undated letter
received on November 14th, written on your behalf by Mr M.
Desai in which were enclosed typed copies of two articles on
Indian education by Mr D.R. Gupta published in Young India for
8th December 1920 and 29th December 1920.
I understand that it is on the evidence adduced in those
articles and on a Punjab Administration Report to which you
have not given me the reference, that you base the sweeping
statement that literacy had diminished in British India during
the past fifty years, and that you could prove this from official
statements.
I have examined the articles and can find nothing in them
to support your contention. The articles do not contain a single
percentage of literacy. The chief authority quoted is the ‘History
of Indigenous Education in the Punjab’ by Dr G.W. Leitner, a
Punjab Official. I feel sure that when you made your assertion
you cannot have been aware that that book was published
nearly fifty years ago, in 1882. Mr D.R. Gupta does not mention
the fact. Nor does he point out that so far from regarding the
Punjab as typical, Leitner compares that Province educationally
to its disadvantage with the Central Provinces and with Lower
Bengal (loc. cit. p.3). It is only within the past ten or fifteen years
that the Punjab has made the rapid advances in primary
education to which I referred in my letter of 21st October.
I am still awaiting the reference which you promised to a
Punjab Administration Report. I have consulted recent Punjab
Administration Reports, but can find nothing in them relating to
literacy in British India, and it is obviously unlikely that any
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