सङ्गीतरत्नाकर: प्रथम भाग (शार्ङ्गदेव - स्वरगताध्याय सविस्तार व्याख्या व अनुवाद सहित)

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8 Treatment of Svara
Śārṅgadeva of widespread fame, with a majestic personality
comparable to cupid and endowed with clever wit and sharp
discrimination, is unique by himself in this world. (10)
Bewildered and tired of roaming around various places,
and desirous of his (Śārṅgadeva's) association, Sarasvatī, the
goddess of learning, has found a permanent rest-house in his
residence. (11)
The incomparable reveller of amusements, the deserving
candidate of good luck and skill, having mitigated the eternal
poverty³ of the brahmins by generous distribution of his
wealth among them, having satisfied the inquisitive scholars
by his learning, and having cured the sick by his drugs, he
the high-minded one now commences his work Saṅgīta-ratnākara
for emancipating⁴ the entire populace from the threefold
misery⁵ of the worldly life, serving the cause of eternal
dharma⁶, obtaining glory and for achieving liberation⁷. (12-14)
(iv) पूर्वाचार्यस्मरणम्
सदाशिवः शिवा ब्रह्मा भरतः कश्यपो मुनिः ।
मतङ्गो याष्टिको दुर्गाशक्तिः शार्दूलकोहलौ ॥१५॥
विशाखिलो दत्तिलश्च कम्बलोऽश्वतरस्तथा ।
वायुर्विश्वावसु रम्भाऽर्जुनो नारदतुम्बुरू ॥१६॥
3. Since the brahmins are entirely devoted to the pursuit of knowledge they are always in the need of money.
4. Liberation is the ultimate end of the art of music as understood in India. ‘S’ points out prakaraṇa songs such as madraka etc., that are mentioned subsequently in the text for this very purpose.
5. Threefold misery is suffering pertaining to the physical, mental and spiritual being.
6. Dharma is moral law, religion and duty appropriate to one’s station in life.
7. Saṅgīta is also a medium of attaining liberation, through the vocal compositions known as prakaraṇa-s to be sung in the praise of Lord Śiva.

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Section I : Introductory 9
आञ्जनेयो मातृगुप्तो रावणो नन्दिकेश्वरः ।
स्वातिर्गणो बिन्दुराजः क्षेत्रराजश्च राहुलः ॥१७॥
रुद्रटो नान्यभूपालो भोजभूवल्लभस्तथा ।
परमर्दी च सोमेशो जगदेकमहीपतिः ॥१८॥
व्याख्यातारो भारतीये लोल्लटोद्भटशङ्कुकाः ।
भट्टाभिनवगुप्तश्च श्रीमत्कीर्त्तिधरः परः ॥१९॥
अन्ये च बहवः पूर्वे ये संगीतविशारदाः ।
अगाधबोधमन्थेन तेषां मतपयोनिधिम् ॥२०॥
निर्मथ्य श्रीशाङ्गदेवः सारोद्धारमिमं व्यधात् ।
(iv) The predecessors of the author : 15-21b
Śārṅgadeva, having churned, by the churning rod of
his deep understanding, the ocean of the manifold viewpoints
of previous music experts such as—Sadāśiva, Śiva, Brahmā,
Bharata, sage Kaśyapa, Mataṅga, Yāṣṭika, Durgāśakti,
Śārdūla, Kohala, Viśākhila, Dattila, Kambala, Aśvatara,
Vāyu, Viśvāvasu, Rambhā, Arjuna, Nārada, Tumburū,
Āñjaneya, Mātṛgupta, Rāvaṇa, Nandikeśvara, Svāti, Bindu-
rāja, Kṣetrarāja, Rāhula⁸, Rudraṭa, King Nānyadeva, King
Bhoja, (Paramardī⁹), Someśa the vanquisher of his foes, king
Jagadeka and the interpreters of Bharata such as Lollaṭa,
Udbhaṭa, Śaṅkuka, Abhinavagupta and Kīrtidhara—has
brought out the cream¹⁰ of knowledge in the form of this book.
(15-21b)
8. Ad. ed. of S. R. reads Rāhala. See Dr. V. Raghavan’s article on “Some Names in Early Sangeet Literature”, Sangeet Natak Academy Bulletin No. 6, May 1957.
9. Paramardī—cf. G. O. S. No. 45—Bhāvaprakāśana p. 73, of Introduction, conjecturing Paramardī, to be a man of letters and a king. Paramardī can also be an epithet of Someśa.
10. ‘K’ suggests that, by describing his work as the acme of the works of his predecessors, the author is pointing out the superiority of his work. However ‘S’ poses the question, “Since so many works do exist on the subject what then is the need for the author to write a new book?”, to which he

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10 Treatment of Svara
(v) सङ्गीतलक्षणं, तत्र मार्गदेशीविभागश्च
गीतं वाद्यं तथा नृत्तं त्रयं संगीतमुच्यते ॥२१॥
मार्गो देशीति तद् द्वेधा तत्र मार्गः स उच्यते ।
यो मार्गितो विरिञ्च्याद्यैः प्रयुक्तो भरतादिभिः ॥२२॥
देवस्य पुरतः शंभोर्नियताभ्युदयप्रदः ।
देशे देशे जनानां यद्रुच्या हृदयराञ्जकम् ॥२३॥
गीतं च वादनं नृत्तं तद्देशीत्यभिधीयते ।
(v) The definition of saṅgīta : its classification as mārga and
deśī : 21c-24b
Gītam (vocal melody), vādyam (playing on instruments)
and nṛttam (dancing), all the three together¹ are known as
saṅgīta which is twofold, viz. mārga² and deśī. That which
was discovered by Brahmā and (first) practised by Bharata
and others in the audience of lord Śiva is known as mārga
(saṅgīta), which definitely bestows prosperity; while the saṅgīta
comprising gītam, vādyam and nṛttam, that entertains people
according to their taste in the different regions, is known as
deśī. (21c-24b)

replies that, "all these ancient works are too numerous and
intelligible with great difficulty and therefore the author's
attempt to present the essence of these works in a nutshell is
worthwhile and creditable". Another purpose of the author
in having referred to his predecessors as suggested by 'S' is
that, Śārṅgadeva, by having claimed to have taken the views
of all these authorities into consideration, wants to prove the
authenticity of his own work.

1. All the three are comprehended as different constituents of
   the same art, called saṅgīta. Etymologically the word saṅgīta
   means singing along with accompaniments and embellishments.
   The term saṅgīta is also used merely for music; but, that is a
   figurative use, taking container for the thing contained; or,
   taking the part for the whole.
2. The term mārga is etymologically explained by 'K' as derived
   from the Skt. root mṛg, to seek. Thus mārga is the way, the
   technique or practice based on the findings of the investigation

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Section I : Introductory 11
(vi) गीतस्य प्राधान्यम्
नृत्तं वाद्यानुगं प्रोक्तं वाद्यं गीतानुवर्ति च ॥२४॥
अतो गीतं प्रधानत्वादत्रादावभिधीयते ।
(vi) The predominance of gītam : 24c-25b
Dancing is guided by instrumental music which, in its
own turn, follows the vocal practice. Therefore, the vocal
melody (i. e. gītam), being the main constituent (of saṅgīta)
is expounded in the first instance. (24b-25c)
(vii) गीत-प्रशंसा
सामवेदादिदं गीतं संजग्राह पितामहः ॥२५॥
गीतेन प्रीयते देवः सर्वज्ञः पार्वतीपतिः ।
गोपोपतिरनन्तोऽपि वंशध्वनिवशं गतः ॥२६॥
सामगीतिरतो ब्रह्मा वीणाऽऽसक्ता सरस्वती ।
किमन्ये यक्षगन्धर्वदेवदानवमानवाः ॥२७॥
अज्ञातविषयास्वादो बालः पर्यङ्किकागतः ।
रुदन्गीतामृतं पीत्वा हर्षोत्कर्षं प्रपद्यते ॥२८॥
वनेचरस्तृणाहारश्चित्रं मृगशिशुः पशुः ।
लुब्धो लुब्धक सङ्गीते गीते यच्छति जीवितम् ॥२९॥
तस्य गीतस्य माहात्म्यं के प्रशंसितुमीशते ।
धर्मार्थकाममोक्षाणामिदमेवैकसाधनम् ॥३०॥

carried out by Brahmā, the creator in the subject matter of
the four Vedas (cf. नाट्यंवेदमिमं वेदं सेतिहासं करोम्यहम्) as quoted by
'K'. So, by implication mārga means classical, while deśī
means regional practice.

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12          Treatment of Svara
(vii) The importance and significance of gītam (melody):
25c-30
Gītam¹ (the vocal music) was extracted from the
Sāmaveda and collected² by Brahmā. Omniscient God, the
husband of Pārvatī (i. e., Śiva) is propitiated by gītam (i. e.,
singing); Kṛṣṇa, the lord of gopī-s, in spite of being infinite,
was enamoured³ of the sound of the bamboo flute. When
Brahmā (the creator) is devoted to sāmagīti (i c., the hymns
of the Sāmaveda sung in a particular style), and Sarasvatī is
attached⁴ to the lute (vīṇā), what to speak, then, of other
creatures, such as the yakṣa-s⁵ and of gandharva-s, the gods
and the demons, and the human beings. An infant, crying
in cradle, unaware of the enjoyment of objects, on tasting
the nectar of a song, knows no bounds of joy. Even a fawn,
an animal feeding on grass and moving in the forest, attract-
ed by the song of a hunter, is ready to sacrifice its life.
Who indeed can describe the grandeur⁶ of melody, for
in fact, it is the only⁷ means for the realisation of the four

Footnotes:

1. As suggested by ‘K’ the hymns of the Sāmaveda are sung in
   seven tones, viz. kruṣṭa, prathama, dvitīya, tṛtīya, caturtha, mandra
   and atisvārya, and so is the present music based on seven tones
   of a different nomenclature.
2. ‘K’ suggests that since the creator himself has extracted saṅgīta
   from the Sāmaveda it is open to all the four castes.
3. Lit. entrapped, charmed, confined.
4. That is, fond of Sarasvatī, the goddess of learning, who, in the
   Hindu mythology, is contemplated with a vīṇā in two of her four
   hands and is considered to be the presiding deity of fine arts.
5. Yakṣa-s and gandharva-s are semi-divine beings of mythological
   origin that have also found a place in poetic convention in
   Sanskrit literature. Yakṣa-s as demigods are considered to be
   the attendants of Kubera, the god of wealth, and guard his
   gardens and treasures; while gandharva-s are celestial singers.
6. Lit. the significance and importance.
7. Though there are definite means for the attainment of these
   values, music is a delightful medium of achieving the same
   ends. Vocal music is employed in the worship of the Divine
   almost universally. Thus it earns spiritual merit. ‘S’ further
   points out that, as mentioned in the text in the context of
   jāti-s, the proper use of jāti-s is instrumental to the attainment
   of dharma.
   That music is a means of earning one’s livelihood and
   wealth needs no explanation, and similarly it also serves as a

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         Section I : Introductory          13
primary values of human life, viz. righteousness (dharma),
wealth (artha), enjoyment (kāma) and emancipation (mokṣa).
(25c-30)

(viii) ग्रन्थस्थसप्ताध्यायानां वस्तुसंग्रहः

तत्र स्वरगताध्याये प्रथमे प्रतिपाद्यते ।
शरीरं नादसंभूतिः स्थानानि श्रुतयस्तथा ॥ ३१ ॥
ततः शुद्धाः स्वराः सप्त विकृता द्वादशाप्यमी ।
कुलानि जातयो वर्णा द्वीपान्यार्षं च दैवतम् ॥ ३२ ॥
छन्दांसि विनियोगाश्च स्वराणां श्रुतिजातयः ।
ग्रामाश्च मूर्छनास्तानाः शुद्धाः कूटाश्च संख्यया ॥ ३३ ॥
प्रस्तारः खण्डमेरुश्च नष्टोद्दिष्टप्रबोधकः ।
स्वरसाधारणं जातिसाधारणमतः परम् ॥ ३४ ॥
काकल्यन्तरयोः सम्यक्प्रयोगो वर्णलक्षणम् ।
त्रिषष्टिरप्यलङ्कारास्त्रयोदशविधं ततः ॥ ३५ ॥
जातिलक्ष्मा ग्रहांशादि कपालानि च कम्बलम् ।
नानाविधा गोतयश्चेत्येतावान्वस्तुसंग्रहः ॥ ३६ ॥
अथ रागविवेकाख्येऽध्याये वक्ष्यामहे क्रमात् ।
ग्रामरागांश्चोपरागान् रागान् भाषा विभाषिकाः ॥ ३७ ॥
ततोऽप्यन्तरभाषाश्च रागाङ्गाण्यखिलान्यपि ।
भाषाङ्गान्युपपाङ्गानि क्रियाङ्गाणि च तत्त्वतः ॥ ३८ ॥
ततः प्रकीर्णकाध्याये तृतीये कथयिष्यते ।
वाग्गेयकारो गान्धर्वः स्वरादिर्गायनस्तथा ॥ ३९ ॥

Footnote (continued from Page 12):
medium of entertainment apart from affording aesthetic
delight; e. g., music is employed to heighten the sentiment of
love. So, music serves as means to the realisation of the two
other values, viz., wealth and enjoyment. Finally, music is
a means to spiritual emancipation when it is practised in the
spirit of dedication, e. g. in the case of songs like madraka
given in the text subsequently (Chap. V.).

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14 Treatment of Svara
गायनी गुणदोषाश्च तयोः शब्दभिदास्तथा ।
गुणदोषाश्च शब्दस्य शरीरं तद्गुणास्तथा ॥४०॥
तद्दोषा गमकः स्थाया आलप्तिर्वृन्दलक्षणम् ।
ततः प्रबन्धाध्याये तु धातवोऽङ्गानि जातयः ॥४१॥
प्रबन्धानां, द्विधा सूदः शुद्धश्छायालगस्तथा ।
आलिक्रमप्रबन्धाश्च सूदस्था आलिसंश्रयाः ॥४२॥
विप्रकीर्णस्ततश्छायालगसूदसमाधिताः ।
गीतस्या गुणदोषाश्च वक्ष्यन्ते शार्ङ्गसूरिणा ॥४३॥
तालाध्याये पञ्चमे तु मार्गतालाः कलास्तथा ।
पाता मार्गाश्च चत्वारस्तथा मार्गकलाऽष्टकम् ॥४४॥
गुरुलध्वादिमानं चंककलत्वादयो भिदाः ।
पादभागास्तथा मात्रास्ताले पातकलाविधिः ॥४५॥
अङ्गुलीनां च नियमो भेदा युग्मादयस्तथा ।
परिवर्तो लयास्तेषां यतयो गीतकानि च ॥४६॥
छन्दकादीनि गीतानि तालाङ्गनिचयस्तथा ।
गीताङ्गानि च वक्ष्यन्ते देशीतालाश्च तत्त्वतः ॥४७॥
निःशङ्कशाङ्गदेवेन तालानां प्रत्ययास्तथा ।
षष्ठे नानाविधं वाद्यमध्याये कथयिष्यते ॥४८॥
सप्तमे नर्तनं नानारसभावाः क्रमेण च ।
(viii) Synopsis of the work: 31-49b
Now in the first chapter concerning svara¹ (tone) etc.,
the topics of study are :
(i) human embodiment²,

1. 'K' explains svaragata in svaragatādhyāya as स्वरानुगताः स्वरगताः
   श्रुतिग्रामा—etc, i. e the topics pertaining to svara such as śruti,
   grāma, mūrcchanā and so on dealt with in this chapter.
2. Human embodiment is discussed in this context because
   human body is the instrument of voice production, i. e. the
   manifestation of nāda.

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Section I : Introductory 15
(ii) the process of sound production (in the body),
(iii) the places (of sound production, i. e., the three
registers),
(iv) the śruti-s³ (micro-tones),
(v) the seven śuddha⁴ (standard) svara-s (notes or tones)
along with twelve vikṛta⁵ (modified forms),
(vi) the family, caste, colour, terrestrial region, origi-
nator sage, presiding deity, metre and the proper
application⁶ of each of the svara-s,
(vii) the generic groups of śruti-s,
(viii) the grāma-s (basic scales),
(ix) the mūrcchanā-s⁷ (modified prototype scales),
(x) the śuddha⁸ and kūṭa tāna-s (specific combinational
and permutational note-series) with their number,
(xi) the prastāra⁹ (sequential permutation),
(xii) the khaṇḍameru¹⁰ (permutation indicator),
3. Śruti-s are the twentytwo divisions of the scale of seven notes,
to be defined and demonstrated later in the text.
4. Śuddha svara-s are the seven tones of a definite pitch compre-
hending 4, 3, 2, 4, 4, 3 and 2 śruti-intervals respectively.
5. Vikṛta-svara-s comprise these very seven tones with more or
less modified pitch in the terms of śruti-intervals, explained
later in the text.
6. Viniyoga indicates the proper context in the terms of drama-
turgy and aesthetic delight, i e., rasa for which a particular
melody is employed. See Ragadhyaya (Chapter II) for
illustrations.
7. Series of seven notes in ascending and descending order,
commencing with different notes.
8. In the ancient sense, when one or two notes are omitted from
a scale, in the act of singing, it becomes a tāna; and if such
omission does not alter the order of the rest of the notes, it is
called a śuddha tāna, while kūṭa-tāna is related to the permu-
tation of notes in groups of two to seven.
9. Prastāra represents an actual working out of these various
permutation and combination patterns.
10. Khaṇḍameru is the name of a mathematical device in the form
of a numerical graph which indicates naṣṭa and uddiṣṭa, where
the former points out the particular permutation for a given
number and the latter gives the number of a given permutation,
to be explained subsequently in the text. (63-70 of Sec. IV)

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16 Treatment of Svara
(xiii) the svara-sādhāraṇa¹¹ (overlapping in note-inter-
vals),
(xiv) the jāti-sādhāraṇa¹² (overlapping in jāti-s),
(xv) the proper use of kākalī-niṣāda¹³ and antara-gāndhāra,
(xvi) the definition of varṇa¹⁴ (colour or pattern of tonal
movement),
(xvii) sixtythree alaṅkāra-s¹⁵ (patterns of tonal phrases),
(xviii) the thirteen characteristic features of jāti-s¹⁶
(melodic types), graha (initial note), aṁśa¹⁷ (funda-
mental note) etc.,
(xix) the kapāla and kambala songs, and
(xx) the various types of gīti-s¹⁸.
These form the collection of topics under study. (31-36)
In the chapter entitled 'Rāgaviveka' (lit. the discernment
of rāga-s) we shall respectively speak of :—
Grāmarāga-s, uparāga-s, rāga-s, bhāṣā-s, vibhāṣā-s, antara-
bhāṣā-s and rāgāṅga-s in full detail and the bhāṣāṅga-s, upāṅga-s
and the kriyāṅga-s, in their essentials. (37-38).
11. Svarasādhāraṇa is defined later in the text; but here it would
suffice to say that it comprehends a pitch interval that is
commonly incorporated by both the tones involved.
12. Among the jāti-s of the same grāma having the same tone as
the fundamental note, the identical melodic presentation that
obtains between them is called jāti-sādhāraṇa (See 10-11b of
Sec. V).
13. Antaragāndhāra and kākalī-niṣāda are the pitch-intervals
obtaining in the svara-sādhāraṇa, located at the distance of
2 śruti-s from gāndhāra and niṣāda respectively.
14. Varṇa signifies 'type of tonal movement', viz. ascending,
descending, etc.
15. Alaṅkāra signifies a melodic phrase, a definite arrangement of
varṇa-s.
16. Jāti represents the first written record of a scientific study
of the melodic patterns that later on developed into rāga-
structures. Jāti, therefore, is conceived as an archetype of
melodic patterns, the mother of rāga-s.
17. Graha and aṁśa are specific notes of a rāga-structure which are
defined later in the text.
18. Gīti signifies the act of singing, comprehending the tonal,
rhythmic and verbal structure of a musical composition.

Page 17

Section I : Introductory 17
Then in the chapter entitled 'Prakīrṇaka' (lit. miscella-
neous) will be described :—
(i) Vāggeyakāra¹⁹ (master composer),
(ii) Gāndharva,²⁰
(iii) Svarādī²¹
(iv) Songster,
(v) Songstress and
(vi) the good and bad characteristics of the two (i. e.,
iv & v),
(vii) the classification of voice and
(viii) the good and bad qualities of voice,
(ix) Śārīra²² and its
(x) good and bad qualities,
(xi) Gamaka²³ (shaking on tones), i. e., grace,
(vii) Sthāya²⁴ (specific features of tonal rendering),
(xiii) Ālāpti²⁵ and
(xiv) the nature of group performance. (39-41b)
The following topics will be dealt with by the learned
Śārṅgadeva in the fourth chapter entitled 'Prabandha'²⁶
(musical composition) :
19. Vāggeyakāra, a master composer, is capable of composing not
only the tonal structure of a musical composition but also the
verbal structure, i. e., the text of the melody.
20. One who is proficient in mārga as well as deśī, music, is called
gāndharva.
21. Svarādi is the performer of deśī music only.
22. Śārīra is peculiarly an Indian concept and has no counterpart
in western terminology. The author elsewhere defines it as
"the built-in capacity of voice (or the entire organism respon-
sible for the production of voice) for musical application (or
for the delineation of a rāga etc.) without any training" (cf.
S.R. III. 82).
23. Gamaka is a graceful shake.
24. Sthāya is an organic part (avayava) of rāga. (See S.R. III
97c-98).
25. Ālāpti is the delineation of rāga.
26. Prabandha is a musical composition, but in this chapter, the
author deals with only vocal compositions and their classi-
fications.

18 Treatment of Svara
(i) Dhātu-s²⁷ (sections) }
(ii) Aṅga-s²⁸ (integral parts) } of vocal composition
(iii) Jāti-s²⁹ (classes) }
(iv) the twofold sūḍa, viz. śuddha and chāyālaga, and
(v) Ālikrama-compositions rooted in the sūḍa and depending on āli
(vi) Viprakīrṇa³⁰ compositions, depending on Chāyālaga sūḍa, followed by
(vii) the good and bad qualities inherent in vocal performance (41c-43).
In the fifth chapter entitled 'Tāla'³¹ (the cyclic time-figure) we shall essentially speak of—
(i) The mārga-tāla-s
(ii) Kalā-s³² (inaudible movements of the hand)
(iii) Pāta-s³³ (audible movements of the hand)
27. Dhātu, literally means a basic element and this expression seems to have been borrowed from Āyurveda (cf. verse 71 of Section 2). Here it signifies 'section' of a musical composition which basically refers to its tonal aspect in contrast with its syllabic content or the non-tonal aspect called mātu. The constitution of prabandha has been conceived on the analogy of an organic body like that of a human being. A prabandha may have 2 to 5 dhātu-s, the average being 4, i. e. udgrāha dhruva, melāpaka and ābhoga, the fifth being antarā.
28. Aṅga, literally means a part of an organic body; here, an integral part of a musical composition. Prabandha is said to have six limbs (i.e, organs), viz. two feet, i e., svara and tāla; two eyes, i.e., pada and tena; and two hands, i e., pāṭa and biruda. We can have two to six of these in a piece.
29. That is, generic classes of vocal compositions, viz. medinī etc., five in number, based on the number of aṅga-s used in a composition.
30. Viprakīrṇa-miscellaneous, i.e., apart from those enumerated above.
31. Tāla signifies cyclic movement in time and is popularly known as the 'time beat'. The author classifies tāla as mārga and deśī and speaks of five mārga-tāla-s and 120 deśī-tāla-s.
Tāla literally is derived from the Skt. root tal—to establish. So, in tāla are established (i.e., based) the three arts of singing, playing on musical instruments and dancing. Tāla is the measure of time that regulates action in music.
32. Kalā, in this context is defined as niḥśabda-kriyā, i.e., soundless act (beat).
33. Pāta is defined as saśabda-kriyā, i.e., act, accompanied with sound (beat).
Section I : Introductory 19
(iv) Mārga-s³⁴ (styles)
(v) the eight mārgakalā-s (i. e., mātrā-s, viz. dhruvakā etc.)
(vi) the standard measure of guru (long) and laghu³⁵ (short)
(vii) the varieties beginning with ekakalā etc.
(viii) the padabhāga-s³⁶
(ix) the mātrā-s³⁷ (fixed units of time)
(x) the technique of pāta³⁸ and kalā in tāla
(xi) the regulation of fingering
(xii) the varieties such as yugma etc.
(xiii) Parivarta³⁹ (the repetition of pāda divisions)
(xiv) Laya-s⁴⁰ (tempo or musical speed)
(xv) and their yati-s (orders of laya)
(xvi) Gītaka-s⁴¹
(xvii) Chandaka gīta-s⁴²
(xviii) the group of tālāṅga-s, and
34. Mārga-s in this context signify the four ways, viz. dhruva etc., in which a particular time-beat cycle can be executed.
35. Laghu and guru signify, primarily, effort in pronouncing a syllable. In metres regulated by the number of syllabic instances—one instance or mātrā is allotted to a short vowel and two to a long one. A syllable is that part of a word that can be pronounced at once, i.e., a vowel with or without one or more consonants.
36. A unit of two or four guru-s.
37. Mātrā signifies a unit, a standard time-measure of a beat-cycle.
38. Pāta roughly signifies a beat that sounds and kalā, a beat that does not sound.
39. Parivarta signifies repetition of padabhāga etc.
40. Laya is tempo, i. e. space in-between the beats. 'S' defines it as the time interval in the act of beating, while yati signifies a scheme of sequence in laya-s.
41 & 42. Seven (or fourteen) song-patterns known as madraka etc. are called prakaraṇākhya gīta-s which are predominently based on tāla and are said to be sung in the praise of lord Śiva for obtaining (spiritual) emancipation.

20 Treatment of Svara
(xiv) gītāṅga-s
(xx) Deśī tāla-s⁴³
(xxi) the pratyaya-s (tabular formulas for finding out
the serial number and the structural form of tāla-s
(44-48b)
In the sixth chapter will be described numerous musi-
cal instruments, while in the seventh chapter, we shall deal
with dancing and the various rasa-s (types of aesthetic
delight) and bhāva-s (modes of being) in due order. (48c-
49b).
43. 120 deśī-tāla-s such as ādi-tāla etc. have been enumerated by
Śārṅgadeva.
अथ द्वितीयं पिण्डोत्पत्तिप्रकरणम्
क. विषयावतरणम्
(i) नादमहिमा
गीतं नादात्मकं वाद्यं नादव्यक्त्या प्रशस्यते ।
तद्द्वयानुगतं नृत्तं नादाधीनमतस्त्रयम् ॥ १ ॥
नादेन व्यज्यते वर्णः पदं वर्णात्पदाद्वचः ।
वचसो व्यवहारोऽयं नादाधीनमतो जगत् ॥ २ ॥
Section 2
The Genesis of the Human Embodiment
A. Introduction :
(i) The importance of nāda : 1-2
Nāda¹ is the very² essence of vocal music. Instrumental
music is enjoyable³, as it manifests nāda. Nṛtta (dance)
Having presented a synoptical view of the proposed work, the
author proceeds to describe the genesis of human embodiment. What
is the relevance of such a topic in a music treatise ? It is indeed ex-
ceptional that Śārṅgadeva has considered it necessary to deal with this
subject matter which concerns embryology and physiology of human
body. He could do so, for he was himself a physician; and he thought

1. Nāda, as already stated, is primordial sound considered by
   some of the schools of Indian Philosophy, specially Yoga and
   Tantra, to be the primary cause of the phenomenal world. Of
   the five basic elements, earth, water, fire, air and ether, per-
   ceived correspondingly by the senses of smell, taste, vision,
   touch and hearing, ether is the most pervasive and the cause
   of the rest. Sound is considered to be the manifestation of
   nāda, which is described as Nāda-brahman and is thus equated
   with the absolute of the Upaniṣads.
2. That is, the intangible substance which manifests itself through
   the articulate sound. The manifest refers to the unmanifest
   by implication.
3. Literally praśasyate means, 'is praised'; but, 'S' rightly inter-
   prets it as 'ramanyatām upaiti', i e., attains the excellence
   of beauty, becomes enjoyable as beautiful.

Page 22

22 Treatment of Svara
follows⁴ both (i.e., vocal and instrumental music); therefore,
all the three⁵ together depend on nāda. (1)
it fit to do so because human body provides the required circumstance
and instrumentation for the production of voice and vocal melody.
Just as some study of physiology is necessary for understanding the
process of voice production in the science of voice culture, so also, our
author finds it necessary to investigate the genesis of human embodi-
ment. This is indicated by him in the first few verses of this section.
However, Śārṅgadeva does not seem to be the only writer on music
of his times, who has considered it worthwhile to deal with the subject
of human embodiment. Śāradatanaya, who is almost a contemporary
of Śārṅgadeva (cf. Introduction to Bhāvaprakāśanam, G.O.S. No. XLV,
Baroda, p. 76, wherein he is placed between 1175-1250 A.D.), and whose
work mainly concerns poetics and deals with music as a subsidiary art
to dramatics, also mentions in the beginning of the seventh Chapter the
process of creation according to the Kashmir Śaivism and Tantra, the
process of human embodiment (albeit very briefly as compared to S.R.
and rather somewhat differently) and voice production in the body.
Attention would be drawn to some of his theories in Section 3 of this
Chapter, and a note pointing the salient features of his account of the
embodiment is given at the end of this topic (vide comments on 119).
It is, however, interesting to note that he designates the subject
matter significantly as geya-samutpatti (the creation of vocal music).
Geya is the technical word for melodic structure. Therefore, his treat-
ment of the subject is quite differently oriented. With him the
description of the phenomenal world or of the physical body is inciden-
tal to what he calls geya-samutpatti. And he describes it because geya
(in the sense of music) is a means of realising the four values of life, viz.
dharma, artha, kāma and mokṣa—i.e. social and moral good, economic
prosperity, enjoyment and spiritual emancipation (cf. p. 182 Bhāva-
prakāśanam).
4. In the ancient Indian aesthetic concept of rasa and beauty,
saṅgīta, comprises the three arts of vocal and instrumental
music and dance. The statement is, therefore, to be under-
stood in that context. ‘S’ quotes, aṅgenālambayed gītam, i. e.,
‘song should be supported by the gesture’, to support and to
elucidate the statement, which becomes intelligible if saṅgīta
is considered to be a composite art of singing, playing on
instruments and dancing.
5. The word trayam of the text brings out the composite nature of
saṅgīta.

Page 23

Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment 23
Nāda⁶ manifests the letters (of alphabet), letters consti-
tute the word,⁷ and words make a sentence; so, the entire
business of life is carried on, through language⁸; and there-
fore, the whole phenomenon (i. e., the world) is based on
nāda.⁹ (2)
Nāda is the basis, not only for music and dance, though specially
related to it, but of the entire business of life; since it constitutes the
very substance of speech which is the only means of communication. The
implication, as derived by ‘K’ is that, the fact that nāda is the very
basis of all manifest life, makes it more important and relevant for the
author to deal with the subject of the genesis of the human embodiment.
(ii) द्विविधो नादः, पिण्डोत्पत्तिप्रतिपादनौचित्यम्
आहतोऽनाहतश्चेति द्विधा नादो निगद्यते ।
सोऽयं प्रकाशते पिण्डे तस्मात्पिण्डोऽभिधीयते ॥ ३ ॥
(ii) Twofold nāda : 3
Nāda is said to be twofold, viz., produced¹ and unpro-
duced. Since it manifests itself in the human body, the
(process of) embodiment is being described. (3)
6. Nāda, here, means sound, i. e., articulation of consonant
letters in conjunction with vowels; ‘S’ interprets nāda, in this
context, as ‘dhvani’ and explains it as the sound which is not
distinguished in terms of varṇa-s, i. e., the particular articula-
tions of sound symbolised by the letters of alphabet, but which
is heard from afar and is responsible for the perception of
high and low pitch associated with letters.
7. Pada in Sanskrit is a meaningful word, i. e., a word with a
relational value.
8. Lit. sentence which is accepted to be the unit of language.
9. Cf. Br. D. verses 16-20, quoted by ‘S’, for similar import.

1. Āhata of the text literally means ‘struck’ and anāhata literally
   means ‘unstruck.’ The idea is that nāda has two forms, viz.,
   the created and the uncreated, the former being an object of
   sense perception and the latter a matter of mystic experience
   of Yoga in which sound and light are fused together and there
   is direct perception.

Page 24

24 Treatment of Svara
ख. पिण्डोत्पत्तौ दार्शनिकतत्त्वनिरूपणम्
(i) ब्रह्मस्वरूपम्
अस्ति ब्रह्म चिदानन्दं स्वयंज्योतिर्निरञ्जनम् ।
ईश्वरं लिङ्गमित्युक्तमद्वितीयमजं विभुः ॥ ४ ॥
निर्विकारं निराकारं सर्वेश्वरमनश्वरम् ।
सर्वशक्ति च सर्वज्ञम्,
B. Genesis : The metaphysical viewpoint.
(i) The nature of Brahman : 4-5c
Brahman is existence¹, blissful² awareness, the self-lumi-
nous³ and taintless⁴ supreme⁵ deity, said to be the ulti-
Human body is a part and parcel of the manifest phenomenon.
To trace the process of the genesis of human embodiment, the author
begins with the unmanifest, unconditioned, timeless reality; and explains
the emergence of numberless individuals, their relationship with the
reality, and the principle determining the differences inherent in the
individual manifestations of that pure existence.

1. Asti Brahman of the text literally rendered would mean, 'there
   is Brahman'; but the word 'there' has to be used for the conve-
   nience of the syntax of English language, there being no
   corresponding idea implied in the text. So Brahman is the
   essence of all existence, the is-ness.
2. The concept of Brahman, best expounded in the Advaitic school
   of the vedānta system of Indian philosophy, visualises three
   aspects of Brahman in the well-known phrase—‘Saccidānanda’
   which refers to the unitary character of pure being, pure
   intelligence and pure bliss. Though Brahman is devoid of all
   qualities, these are the essential features in terms of which
   the time-less reality is comprehended through language.
   Cidānanda is ‘bliss’, as distinguished from the duality of feeling
   in terms of pain and pleasure, which is possible in awareness,
   the operation of pure intelligence.
3. Svayamjyotiḥ of the text literally means that which is a light
   unto itself, i. e., the one that requires no external power to
   manifest itself.
4. That is without any blemish, absolutely pure, free from igno-
   rance.
5. The word Īśvara of the text etymologically is derived from the
   root ‘īśa’, to control, and literally means the controller, the
   ruler. But, since here it is used in the context of vedantic

Page 25

Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment 25
mate⁶ cause, the non-dual⁷, unborn⁸, measureless⁹, unmodi-
fied¹⁰, formless, imperishable, omnipotent and omniscient
‘supreme ruler’¹¹. (4-5c)
(ii) जीवस्वरूपम्
, तदंशा जीवसंज्ञकाः ॥ ५ ॥
अनाद्यविद्योपहिता यथाऽग्नेर्विस्फुलिङ्गकाः ।
दार्वद्युपाधिसंभिन्नास्ते कर्मभिरनादिभिः ॥ ६ ॥
सुखदुःखप्रदैः पुण्यपापरूपैर्नियन्त्रिताः ।
तत्तज्जातियुतं देहमायुर्भोगं च कर्मजम् ॥ ७ ॥
प्रतिजन्म प्रपद्यन्ते,
parlance, following in the wake of Brahman, it is used to denote
Saguṇa-Brahman, i. e., Brahman qualified by the power of
universal consciousness; and therefore, is equivalent to God or
the personal deity. Īśvara is defined as one who is capable
of doing, not doing or doing otherwise.
6. Liṅgam is defined by ‘K’ as Prapañcalayanālliṅgam, i. e., that
in which the dissolution of the phenomenon takes place.
Brahman is said to be the cause of the origination, sustenance
and the dissolution of the creation.
7. Advitīya is a negative epithet, i. e., it negates duality but does
not affirm oneness, for any positive statement presupposes its
opposite, e. g., one implies many, so Brahman is non-dual, i. e.,
incomparable, inconceivable. ‘S’ interprets it as devoid of
internal and external differentiation.
8. That is timeless existence.
9. Vibhu means pervasive, unlimited.
10. Yāska (Nirukta I. 1.1.2, p. 23) has spoken of six modifications
of existential being, i. e., coming into being, being in existence,
growing, disintegrating, decaying and destruction. Brahman is
free from these modifications.
11. That is, the God of the gods, the controller of all the natural
forces.
In the text this expression appears after ‘formless’ and
not at the end as given in the translation for syntactic
convenience.

26 Treatment of Svara
(ii) The nature of jīva (individual being): 5d-8a
Its relative¹ manifestations called jīva-s, delimited by
the beginningless² nescience, are like the sparks of fire,
differentiated by the circumstances³ of wood etc. (5d-6c)
Here the author elucidates the essential nature of the individual
beings and their relationship with the source of all manifestation. As
the sparks are identical with fire in essence and yet have an individual
identity in form, so also the individual beings are limited manifesta-
tions of the unlimited Brahman, distinguishable from each other by the
exigencies of existence caused by the unawareness of the totality of
being, the substratum of individual existence. Thus the relationship
between the manifest individual and the unmanifest, unconditioned
reality is that of identity in difference. 'S' admits of another inter-
pretation as well. He lays emphasis on the word aṁśa of the text and
points out the fact that, since the individuals are conceived as parts and
are admitted to be many, their relationship with Brahman is the one
that subsists between the parts constituting the whole. 'K' interprets
aṁśa as mātrā, i.e., a partial manifestation.
However, aṁśa cannot be interpreted merely as a part, for the
concept of aṁśa implies an incomplete or partial manifestation of the
whole, i.e., it must be understood that the part in this context necessa-
rily implies the whole. So the part is not essentially different from the
whole, though a limited manifestation of the whole.

1. An aṁśa as explained above, is a partial manifestation of the
   whole, i.e., a relative entity. This in fact is a unique relation,
   and when actually comprehended, transcends every form of
   relationship. So each implies all.
2. 'Time' is a relative concept, and it is only in the relative
   existence that time has significance; in the absolute, time has
   no value, since it is timeless. Nescience is said to be beginn-
   ingless, i. e., causeless, since it has no real value in terms of
   being. Nescience is unawareness of the total being and is
   responsible for delimiting awareness in the consciousness of
   the individual, and thus bringing time into being. So being
   anterior to time, it can have no beginning in time.
3. Fire arising out of different kinds of wood gives rise to the
   sparks of a different colour or intensity; so, the sparks are not
   different from fire in so far as heat is the essence of both; but,
   yet, they are different with reference to the circumstance of
   their being due to the difference in the kind of wood that is
   the material cause of the fire. Thus the individuals differ in
   the form of their conditioning; but, are the same in so far as
   all are conditioned manifestations of awareness which by itself
   is unlimited.
   Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment 27
   Governed by their beginningless actions⁴, virtuous as
   well as evil, productive of pleasure and pain, they (jīva-s)
   attain, in every⁵ birth, to a physical body associated with
   appropriate genus⁶, life-time and enjoyment, as a conse-
   quence of their unfructified⁷ accumulated action. (6d-8a).
   Here the author accounts for the variety in the form of individual
   beings so very characteristic of our creation. Nescience being the basis
   of individuation, action proceeding from it is also of the same order,
   i. e., beginningless. Since the nescience is itself the cause of time,
   individual differences cannot be accounted for in time, nor the differen-
   ces are caused by any divine agency for God, though conceived to be
   the substratum of the nescience, is, by that very reason, unaffected by
   it. So, the differences in individual beings are taken to be a given fact
   and explained by the law of karma. Karma is incomplete partial actiou
   which necessitates a process of time-space for its completion. A seed
   when sown takes time to grow into a tree and bear some fruit. Thus
   sowing of the seed is a part of the whole process of a fruit-bearing tree.
   Another implication of the statement is that, since the actions of the
   individuals are beginningless, the differences characterising their being
   must ultimately be traced to the nescience, which is impersonal and
   beginningless. Thus the problem of the origination of good and evil is
   shifted from the individual level to the universal level.
   This is a unique concept which avoids the problem of the origina-
   tion of evil, being attributed to divine authorship and also the indivi-
   duals are absolved from having good or evil as their inherent quality.
   Good and evil actions alike are the product of nescience, which is
   beginningless but not endless, since it can be ended by right knowledge
   or self-awareness Thus, nobody is eternally damned and everybody
   can hope for salvation.
4. Since the nescience, responsible for the sense of doership in
   the individual, is beginningless, the actions proceeding from
   that mentality are also spoken of as beginningless.
5. Many births are visualised for an individual; and this involves
   the theory of reincarnation. A thought body enduring till
   final emancipation is spoken of in the next verse. In every
   birth the individual is endowed with the suitable physical
   vehicle necessitated by his action.
6. The individual may be born in any kingdom, viz., vegetable
   kingdom, animal kingdom, etc. in their species, i. e. various
   animals, or among human beings, in different classes, occupied
   with different vocations, since the enjoyment of life is related
   to it.
7. The Skt. word karma is difficult to translate. The word
   is derived from the root kṛ meaning 'to do', and denotes action,
   work, vocation, etc., in general. But in the context of re-
   incarnation and the law of karma associated with it, karma is
   incomplete action, unspent force involving a time process for

28 Treatment of Svara
(iii) सूक्ष्मशरीरम्
, तेषामस्त्यपरं पुनः ।
सूक्ष्मं लिङ्गशरीरं तदामोक्षादक्षयं मतम् ॥ ८ ॥
सूक्ष्मभूतेन्द्रियप्राणाऽवस्थाऽऽत्मकमिदं विदुः ।
(iii) The subtle body : 8b-9b
They are also possessed of another subtle body¹, which
is considered to be indestructible² till emancipation³,
and is known to be made of the (essence of the five great)
elements⁴, the senses⁵ (indriya-s) and the vital⁶ breaths in
their subtle⁷ form. (8b-9b)
The physical gross body is obviously subject to decay and is
destroyed in course of time; how then, is the individual reborn in
another body ? Anticipating the question, the author declares that an
individual, apart from his physical body, is possessed of another subtle
body that is made up of very fine matter which is not directly perceived
by our senses, since it constitutes the very essence of the five elements
etc. This (thought) body, so to say, is ideal and transmigrates from one
birth to another. But even this subtle body is destroyed at the time of
liberation which is the state of unconditioned intelligence or pure
consciousness.

1. Liṅga śarīra is the subtle body which endures the death of the
   physical body and becomes responsible for a new birth.
2. Indestructible in the relative sense; for it lasts as long as there
   is craving in any form, and craving is caused by nescience
   which is dispelled by right knowledge. When the individual
   is free from craving, he no longer is held in this body and
   becomes one with reality.
3. Ad. ed. reads tadā mokṣād etc. instead of tad-āmokṣād etc.
4. That is earth, water, fire, air and ether.
5. ‘K’ enumerates only sense-organs, while ‘S’ also includes the
   five motor organs known as karmendriya-s and the mind, under
   the import of the word indriya of the text.
6. Five types of the vital breath spoken of later in this Section.
7. Subtle form is that which is imperceptible by the senses.
   Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment 29
   (iv) सृष्टिसंहार-प्रवाहः
   जीवानामुपभोगाय जगदेतत्सृजत्यजः ॥ ९ ॥
   स आत्मा परमात्मा च विश्रान्त्यै संहरत्यथ ।
   तदेतत्सृष्टिसंहारं प्रवाहानादि संमतम् ॥१०॥
   (iv) The cycle of creation and destruction : 9c-10
   The unborn¹ one creates this world for the enjoyment²
   of the individual beings; and that Ātman,³ the universal self,⁴
   Having stated what the nature of reality is, and the relationship
   of reality as a whole with the fact of individual beings, now the author
   proceeds to relate the nature of phenomenon, the fact of the ephemeral
   world and its relationship with its substratum, the timeless being, the
   causeless which is unborn. Whereas the phenomenon is essentially
   transitory (that is, it comes into being, continues for a certain time and
   returns to its source), the source, the reality is causeless, beyond time,
   eternal. The phenomenon of the world is created out of the measureless
   eternity and is dissolved back into it. Such is the relationship of the
   unmanifest and the manifest, which is beginningless, an eternal play
   of the Lord.
8. Being eternal the cause of creation is causeless. The Skt. word
   aja of the text literally means ‘unborn’ and is a familiar
   epithet of Brahman in the vedāntic texts.
9. Why does the creation take place ? For the enjoyment of the
   individual beings that constitute the creation. The creator
   has no motive; so creation is a spontaneous movement. The
   Skt. word bhoga is neutral and includes all experience, pleasant
   as well as painful. Thus, it is the individual beings who are
   involved in the duality of opposites in experience, for the
   creator, creation is sportive action.
10. That Ātman, refers to Brahman, the unborn. The word Ātman,
    by itself stands for reality behind all experience; and is in this
    sense synonymous with the word Brahman. However, when
    the word jīva is prefixed to it, it refers to the individual being,
    and when the word parama is prefixed to it, it means the
    universal being, God.
11. Paramātman is the super-self. Ātman with reference to the
    individual beings that are conditioned by nescience indicates
    the substratum of reality that sustains the illusion of individu-
    ality; while with reference to the creator it indicates the sub-
    stratum of reality supporting the entire phenomenon. Thus,
    Paramātman is the supreme self, i. e., the self of all the beings.

30 Treatment of Svara
withdraws it for the sake of rest⁵; thus, the order of creation
and dissolution is believed to be an incessant flow.⁶ (9c-10)
(v) जीवब्रह्मणोः सम्बन्धः
ते जीवा नात्मनो भिन्ना भिन्नं वा नात्मनो जगत् ।
शक्त्या सृजन्नभिन्नोऽसौ सुवर्णं कुण्डलादिव ॥११॥
सृजत्यविद्ययेत्यन्ये यथा रज्जुर्भुजङ्गमम् ।
(v) The relation of jīva and Brahman : 11-12b
These individual beings are not different¹ from the
Ātman, neither is the world² different from it; for, creating
by its own power³, it is non-different (from its creation),
5. 'K' suggests that, since creation takes place for the enjoyment
of the individual beings, it is withdrawn by the creator also
for the rest of the individual beings. Since the creator, being
the substratum of the phenomenon, is not affected by the
duality of pain and pleasure and for him creation is sportive,
he needs no rest.
6. Anādi of the text means beginningless. The idea is that crea-
tion and dissolution do not take place in time, since time
itself is a part of creation. The world process is thus conceiv-
ed to be an incessant flow. 'K' suggests that the world has
a beginning with reference to the particular, i. e., individual
manifestations only, viz a son is born and has a beginning
but the universal, i e., the process of regeneration has no
beginning.

1. The individuals are considered here in the relationship of the
   constituents and the constituted, i e., aṁśāṁśibhāva, and are
   thus essentially non-different from, i. e., identical with Ātman,
   reality.
2. The world too is conceived to be non-different from Ātman,
   since the creator and the creation are understood to be in the
   relationship of cause and effect, i. e., kāryakāraṇabhāva. This
   relationship as well as the above one is accepted by the
   Bhedābheda school of the vedānta system of Indian philosophy.
3. According to the Bhedābheda-vedānta philosophy, the creator
   creates the universe by its own power and therefore is not
   essentially different from its creation, just as the sunshine is
   not essentially different from the sun.
   Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment 31
   just as gold⁴ is non-different from (its products such as)
   ear-ring etc.; according to others, however, it creates through
   nescience as the rope gives rise to the snake.⁵ (11-12b)
   Now the author is presenting the whole picture of the creator and
   the creation; the relationship of the creator, the created beings and the
   world is that of identity in difference—identity with reference to
   substance and diversity with reference to form, just as ornaments made
   of gold are gold in substance and are yet called by different names such
   as ear-ring, bracelet, etc. The visible differences belong to the pheno-
   menon and not to the reality manifested through it. However, as it
   would be clear from the analogy of gold and ornaments, creation in this
   view involves a transformation of reality.
   The other view regarding the relationship of the creator and the
   creation does not accept the phenomenon to be a transformation of
   reality, rather it conceives it as an illusion based on individual nescience.
   According to this view the nature of phenomenon is essentially illusory,
   even though the substratum of the phenomenon is real So phenomenon
   is only an appearance of the real caused by the limitations of individua-
   lity. The stock example of, 'the snake appearing in a piece of a rope
   due to darkness', is a popular analogy to explain this particular relation-
   ship. Here, the non-existence of the snake is realised in the existence
   of the rope; similarly the true significance of appearance is realised only
   in the experience of reality.
   (vi) भौतिकसृष्टिः
   आत्मनः पूर्वमाकाशस्ततो वायुस्ततोऽनलः ॥१२॥
   अनलाज्जलमेतस्मात्पृथिवी समजायत ।
   महाभूतान्यमून्येषा विराजो ब्रह्मणस्तनुः ॥१३॥
4. Gold is not different from the ornaments made out of it, as
   far as the substance is concerned, and yet, they are different
   in form with reference to each other. So the creation is not
   different with reference to the creator, the perceptible diffe-
   rence being relative in the manifest world.
5. As the rope, acting as the substratum gives rise to the illusion
   of the snake appearing in it; so also, through ignorance and
   the power of illusion, Ātman, acting as the substratum, gives
   rise to the illusion of the phenomenon of duality.

32 Treatment of Svara
ब्रह्मा ब्रह्माणमसृजत्तस्मै वेदान्प्रदाय च।
भौतिकं वेदशब्देभ्यः सर्जयामास तेन तत् ॥१४॥
तदाज्ञयाऽसृजद् ब्रह्मा मनसैव प्रजापतीन्।
तेम्यस्तु रेतसी सृष्टिः शरीराणां निरूप्यते ॥१५॥
(vi) The physical manifestation : 12c-15
From Ātman¹ emanated, ether², first³ of all, followed⁴
by air, fire, water and earth in their respective order. These
are the great elements⁵, and they constitute the body of
Brahman, then called viraj⁶. (12c-13)
Having elucidated the metaphysical basis of reality and appe-
arance, the creator and the creation and their mutual relationship, now
the author proceeds to describe the order of physical emanation and
the manifestation of nature etc. In Indian philosophy, the manifest
phenomenon as perceived through the five senses is classified into the
five basic elements, called mahābhūta-s, which term is translated here
as 'great elements'. These elements are not necessarily the equivalents
of the English words ether etc. used here; but, since there is roughly a
similar tradition in Greek philosophy, these terms have tentatively been
considered acceptable. However, in essence ākāśa means that objective

1. That is because ātman has been spoken of as being the cause
   of the phenomenon. Ātman is obviously taken as synonymous
   with Brahman.
2. Ākāśa is translated as ether, because that is the general prac-
   tice; and also because there is no other proper word for it in
   the English language.
3. Ether is the first evolute from which other elements evolve
   later in their respective order.
4. The word 'tataḥ' of the text, means 'thereafter'. The doctrine
   of the physical evolution, represented here, holds that from
   Ātman or Brahman emanates ether, from ether air, from air fire,
   from fire water and from water is evolved earth; and accor-
   dingly, they are dissolved back one by one unto Brahman.
5. Mahābhūta-s, the great elements represent the gross manifes-
   tation of Brahman before pañcīkaraṇa (amalgamation).
6. Brahman, as conditioned by these universal elements is known
   as virāj. The word virāj literally means luminous, splendour.
   It is held in this doctrine that Brahman, having created the
   five universal elements, entered into them The physical
   world has no existence apart from the intelligent principle;
   and thus, no real difference is conceived between the creator
   and the creation.

Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment
Brahman⁷ created Brahmā and having handed over the
veda-s⁸ to him, it caused⁹ him to create the physical world
reality, which is the substratum of sound perceived by the ear; vāyu
denotes the element through which the perception of touch takes place;
anala (also called agni or tejas etc.) is the element that is responsible for
the perception of colour; jala is the element that is responsible for the
perception of taste; and pṛthivī is the element that produces the per-
ception of odour. Thus these elements are conceived on the basis of
five types of perception to which they respectively correspond. These
elements are quite different from the elements of modern science.
Then, these elements produce the physical universe, which is
essentially perceptive and has consciousness as its basis, by the process
of permutation and combination in various proportions, known as
pañcīkaraṇa in vedāntic parlance. That, however, involves too great a
divergence from the subject of this text.
This physical universe is conceived to constitute a body, a form,
to Brahman, the formless; who therefore is given a different name viz.,
Virāj to distinguish it from the unconditioned Brahman.
Brahman, conditioned by the five universal elements, called Virāj
is not yet in the position to create the physical world; since the elements
are in the state of equilibrium before the process of Pañcīkaraṇa takes
place, i.e., before they intermingle in ratio and proportion. But the
act of creation is possible through Brahman only while it is conditioned
by the universal elements in terms of physical manifestation, and by the
universal nescience, in terms of psychological manifestation. Thus,
even though the author has not clearly stated in the text, it is implied
7. 'K' identifies Virāj with the four faced Brahmā of the purāṇā-s
and thus attributes the act of creation directly to the
unconditioned Brahman, 'Brahmā virāḍrupam Brahmaṇam catur-
mukham asṛjat'. However, this does not accord well with the
metaphysical doctrine of Bhedābheda system.
8. Brahmā is a symbolic figure of the puranic mythology, having
four faces. Each of his faces is supposed to give expression to
each of the four vedas. He is considered to symbolise the
creative aspect of Brahman in the trinity of Brahmā, Viṣṇu
and Śiva, the last two being responsible for the maintenance
of the creation and the dissolution of the phenomenon.
Obviously, the author is presenting a synthesis of the vedic
and the puranic traditions.
9. That is how Brahman is the final cause, though it is Brahmā
who actually creates, yet he is inspired by Brahman to do so.
3

34 Treatment of Svara
through¹⁰ the words of the veda-s. (14)
By his¹¹ command Brahmā created through¹² his
mind, the Prajapati-s¹³, and from them the seminal¹⁴
creation of bodies is being expounded.¹⁵
in the context that Brahman, as conditioned by the five universal
elements created Brahmā, the progenitor of all the beings and the
physical world inhabited by them. However, the Veda proclaims Virāj
to be the first progeny of Puruṣa; Tasmād Virāḍajāyata (Rv. 10.90.5).
But then in vedic mythology, Brahmā possibly has no such place. Thus
obviously, our author has synthesised the concept of Virāj and Brahmā
in this doctrine. In this context Brahman is not differentiated from
Virāj, which has been spoken of as Saguṇa-brahman in the puranic
parlance. Indeed, perhaps that is why 'S' has equated Brahman of this
verse with Īśvara of the vedānta philosophy.
10. The creation takes place through the word, as codified in the
vedas. The vedas in the Indian tradition are considered to
be 'apauruṣeya', i.e., literally, beyond human authorship. Since
creation and dissolution in the author's view form a unitary
movement, the creation takes place through the word of the
vedas which, through the process of association give rise to
the form as ideas in the universal mind, which then creates
the world according to those ideas, the latent seeds.
11. That is, Virāj; it is notable that here 'K' also interprets it as
such.
12. That is, by his will power.
13. Literally, the word prajāpati means the lord of creatures,
of all the created beings. There have been many prajāpati-s
and their number differs from seven to twenty-one, according
to different accounts. Prajāpati originally seems to be a god
of the vedic hymns who was later raised to the status similar
to that of Brahmā in the sūtra-s. But later in the purāṇa-s, the
word prajāpati became more or less an appellation of the
founders of the great dynasties such as Marīci, Atri, Aṅgiras,
Pulastya, etc. However, in the present context prajāpati-s are
conceived as the mental progeny of the creator, Brahmā.
14. Retas, literally means 'semen', but the expression is metaphorical
and signifies the product of copulation, i. e., the creation that
takes place as a result of the opposites coming together.
Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment 35
(vii) भौतिकदेहभेदाः
स्वेदोद्भेदजरायुण्डहेतुभेदाच्चतुर्विधम् ।
देहं यूकाऽऽदिनः स्वेदादुद्भेदात्तु लताऽऽदिनः ॥१६॥
जरायोर्मानुषादीनामण्डात्तु विहगादिनः ।
(viii) मानुषदेहाभिधाने हेतुः
तत्र नादोपयोगित्वान्मानुषं देहमुच्यते ॥१७॥
(vii) Types of physical bodies : 16-17b
The body is of four types, depending on the nature of
its cause, viz., sweat, sprout, womb¹ and egg; such as louse
etc., from sweat, creeper etc., from the sprout, human being
etc., from the womb and birds etc., from the egg.² (16-17b)
(viii) The purpose of dealing with the human body: 17cd
Of the above (four), the human body¹, being suitable
for (the manifestation of) nāda is dealt with (here). (17cd)
The Āyurvedic classification of the manifestation of life is substan-
tially different and quite comprehensive. It comprehends life under
three main heads, viz., jaṅgama (animals), audbhid (plants) and pārthiva
(minerals). The jaṅgama (animal class) is subdivided into jarāyuja,
aṇḍaja, svedaja (all the three given in the text) and udbhijja, the last of
which comprises of animals in hybernation etc. that remain unmanifest
for a certain period of time concealed in the soil, and develop only
during particular seasonal conditions. The author has identified the
vegetable kingdom with udbheda rather than the fourth category of
animals spoken of in the Āyurvedic tradition. The inclusion of creepers
etc. under types of bodies does not seem to be as scientific as the udbhijja
class of Āyurveda. The author's classification, however, appears to
follow the puranic tradition.

1. The word jarāyu of the text precisely means the outer layer
   of foetus, and technically refers to the viviparous creatures.
2. Ad. ed of S. R. reads "aṇḍatta" instead of "aṇḍattu" wherein
   tu seems to have been used as a conjunctive.
3. That is why the author has introduced this section on human
   embodiment in a musical treatise. Also, this provides the
   reason for dealing with the human body only from out of the
   four types.

36 Treatment of Svara
(ix) जीवस्य गर्भाशयेऽवतरणम्
क्षेत्रज्ञः स्थित आकाशे आकाशाद्वायुमागतः ।
वायोर्धूमं ततश्चाभ्रमभ्रान्मेघे ऽवतिष्ठते ॥१८॥
आहृत्य ऽऽप्यायितो प्रस्तरसो ग्रीष्मे च भानुभिः ।
भानुर्मेघे घनरसं निधत्ते तं वलाहकः ॥१९॥
यदा वर्षति वर्षेण सह जीवस्तदा भुवः ।
वनस्पत्योषधीर्जाताः संक्रामत्यविलक्षितः ॥२०॥
ताम्यो ऽन्नं जातमनं तत्पुरुषैः शुक्लतां गतम् ।
शुद्धार्तवाया योषाय निषिक्तं स्मरमन्दिरे ॥२१॥
सहार्तवेन शुद्धं चेद्गर्भाशयगतं भवेत् ।
जीवकर्मप्रेरितं तद् गर्भमारभते तदा ॥२२॥
(ix) The descent of jīva into the womb : 18-22
The self-aware¹ intelligence, the resident² of ether,
descends into air; and from air into smoke, from smoke into
The embodied self, i. e., the self-aware intelligence, has already
been spoken of as having two bodies, subtle and gross. Here the pro-
cess of the physical, i. e., gross embodiment is being described, and
therefore, the thought-body is taken for granted to be existent in the
form of etheric vibrations as the residue of past incarnation of the
individual self or soul who is called kṣetrajña, which signifies intelligence
involved in the self-conscious individual being.

1. The word kṣetrajña of the text literally means the knower of
   the field, i. e., the observer, the witness of the field of con-
   sciousness. The word kṣetra also means an abode: so, by
   implication the word signifies the body. Kṣetrajña thus means
   the soul or intelligence as conditioned by self-consciousness; and
   here, the word is used in this technical sense. cf. Bh. Gītā XII.
   1 & 2. "This organism, oh! Arjuna, is named as kṣetra (the
   field); and the one who is aware of it is called as kṣetrajña (the
   perceiver of the field) by the experts." (13.1)
   Thus kṣetra and kṣetrajña may roughly be understood as
   the field of consciousness and consciousness subsisting in the
   awareness of the field. The deeper significance of these terms
   would be clear from the next verse.
   "Oh, Arjuna, understand that I am the kṣetrajña (intelli-
   gence) in all the kṣetra-s (organisms). The comprehension of
   the body and the soul is considered to be my knowledge."
2. It is assumed that thought body is made of subtle matter in
   Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment 37
   cloud-formation³ and from the cloud-formation into the
   cloud. (18)
   The sun, being satiated⁴ by the oblations and surround-
   ed by vapours drawn by its rays in the summer,⁵ confines
   the waters in the clouds. When the clouds release the waters,
   the self-conscious intelligent being,⁶ descending with the
   showers, transfers itself imperceptibly⁷ to the terrestrial
   growth of trees and herbs. This⁸ (vegetation) becomes food;
   and when eaten by men, is transformed into semen; which,
   being sprinkled in the temple⁹ of love in the body of a young
   The process of the descent of the thought-embodied intelligence
   into the physical human organism follows the general pattern of the
   evolution of the five great elements, viz., from ether to air, from air to
   fire as associated with smoke, and from fire to water as associated with
   cloud, and from water to earth, through vegetation. Having entered
   the vegetation it remains a matter of course for it to reach an appro-
   priate womb for its physical encasement.
3. Abhra of the text signifies a cloud-formation devoid of water,
   so to say, a combination of smoke, light and air, while Megha
   signifies the cloud proper full of water.
4. In the Indian tradition the sun is offered oblations in the
   sacrificial fire. The gods, in this view, have nothing to eat in
   their heavenly abode and have to be nourished through the
   sacrificial oblations offered by human beings.
5. This is significant in the context of Indian climate. The sun
   is supposed to draw the waters of the Indian ocean in
   summer through the sun's rays that fall directly upon it and
   collect them in the clouds, and this is a statement of a geo-
   graphical fact, the phenomenon of monsoon.
6. Jīva is conceived to be pure intelligence conditioned by self-
   consciousness.
7. Since consciousness is not an object of sense perception, the
   the journey of the soul from the thought body to the physical
   body is imperceptible outwardly
8. What is notable here is that the self-aware intelligence or, in
   other terms, the individual soul can never keep an identity
   without a physical vehicle. So in fact the whole journey is a
   process of the movement from a purely ideal body to a
   physical one. Thus it is also a process of evolution or mani-
   festation from the subtle to the gross. Food also is a vehicle
   for the self-enclosed consciousness and so is semen into which
   it is transformed.
9. The temple of love spoken of here refers metaphorically to the
   vagina.

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38 Treatment of Svara
ग. पिण्डोत्पत्तावायुर्वेदानुसारि निरूपणम्
(i) गर्भस्य वृद्धिक्रमः
द्रवत्वं प्रथमे मासि कललाख्यं प्रजायते ।
द्वितीये तु घनः पिण्डः पेशीषढ्नमर्बुदम् ॥२३॥
पुंस्त्रीनपुंसकानां स्युः प्रागवस्थाः क्रमादिमाः ।
तृतीये त्वङ्कुराः पञ्च कराङ्घ्रिशिरसो मताः ॥२४॥
woman in her proper course¹⁰, on entering the uterus, if¹¹
pure, unites with ovum: and then, being¹² impelled by the
accumulated residual action of the individual, it begins to
develop into the foetus. (19-22).
C. Genesis : The physiological viewpoint
(i) The development of the embryo : 23-41
In the first month a gelatinous substance (called kalala)
comes into being; in the second a hardened mass in the form
Now, the author goes on to describe the various stages through which
the embryo develops during the entire period of pregnancy and connect-
ed matters. From a comparative study of the monumental works of
Indian medicine and surgery by Caraka and Suśruta, it appears that our
10. Literally, śuddhārtava means pure menstrual discharge. This
refers to the suitable period of the monthly course, i. e., the
particular days after the menses, considered as opportune for
the union of the sperm and the ovum. But, more than that,
the śuddhārtava of the text refers to the ideal physical fitness
of a woman for conceiving a child. The test for the required
purity of the blood of the menstrual flow as quoted by 'K' is
that it should be of the colour, as red as the solution of lac or
its spots on cloth should be capable of being washed clean.
The word ārtava technically means the catamenial fluid.
11. The semen should also be of a certain standard. As, 'K'
quotes, semen to be fit for procreating should be strong,
heavy, viscous, sweet and profuse.
12. According to the Hindu view of life, fertilisation of a sperm
and an ovum is not a mechanical process, but the soul destin-
ed to be embodied in the foetus is the intelligent force guided
by its residual action (Karma), without which no conception
can materialise.

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Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment 39
अङ्गप्रत्यङ्गभागाश्च सूक्ष्माः स्युर्युगपत्तदा ।
विहाय श्मश्रुदन्तादीञ्जन्मानन्तरसंभवान् ॥२५॥
एषा प्रकृतिरन्या तु विकृतिः संमता सताम् ।
चतुर्थे व्यक्ता तेषां भावानामपि जायते ॥२६॥
पुंसां शौर्यादयो भावा भीरुत्वाद्यास्तु योषिताम् ।
नपुंसकानां संकीर्णा भवन्तीति प्रचक्षते ॥२७॥
मातृजं चास्य हृदयं विषयानभिकाङ्क्षति ।
अतो मातुर्मनोऽभीष्टं कुर्याद्गर्भसमृद्धये ॥२८॥
तां च द्विहृदयां नारीमाहुर्दौहृदिनीं बुधाः ।
अदानाद्दोहदानां स्युर्गर्भस्य व्यङ्गताऽऽतयः ॥२९॥
मातुर्यद्विषयालाभास्तदार्तो जायते सुतः ।
गर्भः स्यादर्थवान्भोगी दोहदाद्राजदर्शने ॥३०॥
अलङ्कारेषु ललितो धर्मिष्ठस्तापसाश्रमे ।
देवतादर्शने भक्तो हिंस्रो भुजगदर्शने ॥३१॥
गोधाऽशने तु निद्रालुर्बली गोमांसभक्षणे ।
माहिषे शुकरक्ताक्षं लोमशं सूयते सुतम् ॥३२॥
प्रबुद्धं पञ्चमे चित्तं मांसशोणितपुष्टता ।
षष्ठे ऽस्थिस्नायुनखरकेशरोमविविक्तता ॥३३॥
बलवणौ चोपचितौ सप्तमे त्वङ्गपूर्णता ।
पाल्यन्तरितहस्ताभ्यां श्रोत्ररन्ध्रे विधाय सः ॥३४॥
उद्विग्नो गर्भवासादास्ते गर्भाशयान्वितः ।
स्मरन्पूर्वानुभूताः स नानाजातीश्च यातनाः ॥३५॥
मोक्षोपायमभिध्यायन्वर्तते ऽभ्यासतत्परः ।
अष्टमे त्वक्स्मृती स्यातामोजश्चेतच्च हृद्द्रवम् ॥३६॥
शुद्धमापीतरक्तं च निमित्तं जीविते मतम् ।
पुनरम्बां पुनर्गर्भं चञ्चलं तत्प्रधावति ॥३७॥

40 Treatment of Svara
अतो जातो ऽष्टमे मासि न जीवत्योजसोज्झितः ।
किंचित्कालमवस्थानं संस्कारात्खण्डिताङ्गवत् ॥३८॥
समयः प्रसवस्य स्यान्मासेषु नवमादिषु ।
मातृ रसवहां नाडीमनुबद्धा पराऽभिधा ॥३९॥
नाभिस्थनाडी गर्भस्य मात्राहाररसावहा ।
कृताञ्जलिर्ललाटे ऽसौ मातृपृष्ठमभि स्थितः ॥४०॥
अध्यास्ते संकुचद्गात्रो गर्भ दक्षिणपार्श्वगः ।
वामपार्श्वस्थिता नारी क्लीबं मध्यस्थितं मतम् ॥४१॥
of a ball¹, a tendon² or an egg³, indicative of the prelimi-
nary stage of the male, female and a eunuch respectively.
In the third month emerge the five⁴ organic⁵ seedlings, viz.,
hands, feet and the head. (23-24)
author, who is known to be a medical practitioner himself, has based
this Section of his work mainly on these two authorities, though he also
seems to have consulted subsequent literature on the subject. Therefore
parallel references are offered here for a detailed and authoritative study

1. Piṇḍa of the text corresponds to a lump which is stated by 'K'
   to be round. 'S' connects piṇḍa with peśī and interprets that,
   if the piṇḍa, in the sense of a lump of flesh, is like a peśī, then
   it is indicative of a male issue; and consequently further he
   interprets īṣadghana, i.e , 'slightly in a solid condition' to be
   indicative of a female child; and arbudam, i.e., 'like a bud of
   a tamarind tree' to be indicative of neutral gender. But obvi-
   ously this construction does not seem to be correct, specially
   in the light of Suśruta and Caraka.
2. Peśī is not in so solid a condition as to form a lump. So it is
   like a muscle more or less. K.R. says, peśī is a square piece.
   The word peśī also means foetus shortly after conception.
3. Arbudam : 'K' asserts that arbudam is of the shape of a bud of
   tamarind tree according to the physicians. The word literally,
   in this context, means a long round mass, tumor like; but here,
   it has been used in a technical sense.
4. Two hands, two feet and the head, technically make the five.
   However, as suggested by 'K', the seedling of the head in-
   cludes the neck, two eyes, two nostrils, two ears, etc. as its
   parts; the seedling for hands includes, shoulders, elbow, wrist
   fingers, wrist, etc. and the seedling for feet includes thighs,
   knees, legs. ankles, toes etc.
5. Aṅkura of the text literally means a sprout or a seedling but
   Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment 41
   Apart from the beard, teeth and the like, that grow
   after the birth, an imperceptible⁶ and simultaneous develop-
   ment⁷ takes place in all the limbs, sub-organs and their parts.
   This is the natural course⁸, while anything contrary to it is
   considered by the wise to be unnatural⁹. (25-26 b)
   In the fourth (month) these (organs) are distinctly
   developed; and so also the mental states¹⁰ come into being,
   such as valour among men, timidity among women and
   of the particular topics dealt with in this Section. Obviously,
   Śārṅgadeva has been not only very precise but also very brief in his
   presentation, as indeed he everywhere is, throughout his entire work.
   In the first month the sperm as united with the ovum forms into a
   jelly-like substance in a liquid condition, the five elements of which,
   under the impact of cold, heat and wind solidify in the second month
   into a mass. This mass, according to our author, forms in three shapes,
   viz. a ball-like round shape, a tendon like oblong, and an egg like oval
   shape, each of which indicates respectively the masculine, feminine and
   the neuter gender. This is the rudimentary stage and the sex of the
   embryo can, on this basis, be distinguished even in the second month.
   This view is based on Caraka and Suśruta (cf., Śā. Sthā 4.9 10 and
   3.18-19 respectively).
   In the third month five protuberances appear in the solidified
   mass of flesh at the five places where the five organs have to be, while
   the minor limbs and their parts are formed in the shape of very minute
   papillae (cf., Caraka Śā. Sthā. 4.11 and Suśruta Śā. Sthā. 3.20).
   In the fourth month all the limbs and the organs and parts thereof
   are fully developed. Since the viscus of the heart too is developed and
6. The process of growth is slow and uniform, that is why it is
   said to be imperceptible.
7. That is, the entire growth takes place as soon as the seedlings
   have sprouted.
8. Prakṛti is natural disposition or tendency, so uniform develop-
   ment is the natural course of growth.
9. Vikṛti is deformation, any development that takes place
   contrary to the order of nature with respect to the process of
   growth in the viviparous animals.
10. 'K' interprets the word bhāva, here, in the sense of latent ten-
    dency; obviously, latent in the causal body and manifesting
    itself now in the physical body. Bhāva is a state of being, a
    subject in relationship with a situation.

42 Treatment of Svara
indistinctness¹¹ among hermaphrodites; that is, how it is
said.¹² (26c-27)
The heart of the embryo is a product of its mother¹³
and so it craves for enjoyment.¹⁴ Therefore the wishes of the
mother should be respected¹⁵ for the growth¹⁶ of the
foetus. (28)
the heart is considered to be the seat of consciousness, the embryo is
endowed with feeling, so much so that the desire for enjoyment is
awakened in it, which operates through the longing of the mother (cf.,
Suśruta Śā. Sthā. 3.21). Our author is suggesting that the embryo is
capable of mental states such as valour and timidity. But these are
taken as examples, what is important to note is that it is the fourth
month itself that endows the embryo with consciousness and craving for
experience.
The heart of the embryo is fashioned after the heart of the mother
as the author tells subsequently (verse 45) in this Section and here too.
The word heart is symbolic of the faculty of conation, of feeling and will,
of emotion and desire. 'K' interprets the text to mean that the heart
of the embryo as well as that of the mother beat in unison; they form a
unity, analogous to that of the twins. So the enceinte is named twin-
hearted. The cravings of the mother and the child are related in identity
11. The word saṅkīrṇa of the text literally, in this context, means
'petty', undeveloped, closed, i. e., devoid of manly or womanly
predilections.
12. Obviously, the author is not sure of the scientific basis for
this concept, so he attributes it to the general opinion as it
was prevalent.
13. According to 'K' the heart of the embryo (as well as of the
mother, the two being one in essence) desires, craves for
particular sensations. Literally, the text reads "its heart is a
product of its mother."
14. Viṣayān of the text literally means sense objects. The embryo
cannot possibly have a longing for the sense objects, for he
does not perceive them. So it is the heart of the mother
enjoined to that of the embryo that desires sense objects.
But indeed, since the embryo is endowed with consciousness
it is supposed to have longings for particular sensations which
the mother can relate to particular sense objects by intuition
or the suggestions of the subconscious mind.
15. That is, as far as possible the wishes of an enceinte should be
fulfilled.
16. Saṁṛddhi of the text literally means enrichment, i. e., physical
and mental growth, i. e., development.

Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment 43
Such a woman with two hearts (as it were) is called
twin-hearted by the wise. If the wishes of pregnancy¹⁷ are
not respected, deformity of organs may occur in the embryo;
for whatever is denied to the enceinte becomes a cause of
discomfort¹⁸ to it (the embryo).¹⁹ (29-30b)
If the pregnancy wish²⁰ pertains to royal audience,
the child²¹ would be wealthy, reveller of enjoyments and
fond of ornamentation²², if it pertains to visiting a hermit-
age, the child would be of righteous disposition; if it pertains
to visiting a temple²³, the child would be a devotee (of
and therefore the unfulfilled desires of the enceinte (pregnant woman)
are likely, not only to cause mental complications in her mind, but those
complexes react on the consciousness of the embryo, so much so that the
nongratification of any desire for a particular sensation during gestation
tends to adversely affect that particular sense organ of the child (cf,
Suśruta Śā. Sthā. 3.21). The fulfilment of such desires is conducive to
a healthy progeny.
There is a very close relationship between the mother and the foe-
tus, and this relationship is not only physiological but also psychological;
this latter aspect is sought to be demonstrated by detailing the effect of
17. Dohada of the text technically. means the wishes of an enceinte,
and the objects of those wishes are also called Dohada-s.
18. The text literally interpreted would mean 'By whatever (object
of enjoyment) the mother is deprived, the child born is ill-
formed by it (i. e., not properly developed with reference to
that particular sense organ).
19. Literally translated, it is the 'son', for a male issue is generally
desired.
20. The longings and wishes of the enceinte during the period of
gestation have been named as 'pregnancy wishes', i.e., the
dohada-s of the text.
21. Lit. the son.
22. K.R. translates the first line of verse 31 as—"(If she spends
her time) in the hermitage of sage, (he will be) indifferent to
ornaments and devoted to virtue", obviously, he construes
'alaṁkāreṣu lalitaḥ' with 'dharmiṣṭhastāpasāśrame'. It is, however,
not clear why it can be so construed.
23. Devatā-darśana of the text literally means a desire for being in
direct communion with a deity. In view of the widespread
image worship in India, obviously the desire can only pertain
to visiting the deity as represented by an idol in a temple.
The word darśana, in India, is used in the most profound sense
of communion, as well as, 'having a look at'.

Page 44

44 Treatment of Svara
God); if it pertains to seeing a snake, the child would be
violent in nature; if it pertains to eating (the flesh of) an
alligator²⁴, the child would be addicted to sleep; if it per-
tains to eating beef, the child would be strong, if it pertains
to eating buffalo meat, the child²⁵ would have red eyes like
those of a parrot and a hairy body. (30c-32)
The consciousness awakens in the fifth (month) and
there is sufficient addition to flesh and blood. In the sixth
(month) the bones, sinews²⁶ nails, hair on the head and the
limbs²⁷ appear distinctly and there is an augmentation of
energy²⁸ and complexion. In the seventh (month) the com-
pletion of organs takes place. (33-34b)
the mental conditions, desires, and longings of the enceinte during the
period of gestation on the nature of the child after its birth. Much of
what has been said seems to be based on Suśruta with minor variations
(cf., Śā. Sthā. 3. 26-34), where it is suggested towards the end of this
topic that the pregnancy wishes of the enceinte are not so much due to
the personal disposition of the mother, as due to the cumulative effect of
the incomplete action (karma) of the child in previous lives.
In the fifth month, the thought body is revived and intelligence
begins to function through the mind. In other words, there is an
awakening of consciousness in terms of self-awareness. According to 'K'
the inner instrument, i.e., the mind which was dormant, opens upto
the movement of life, i.e., becomes sensitive. When this particular
statement (33ab) is read in conjunction with verse no. 35, it becomes
24. The dictionary meaning of the word godhā is alligator. But
K.R. has rendered it as 'wheat', which does not seem to be
very significant, since wheat forms a staple food, more or
less for all; and moreover it is difficult to say how he derives
this meaning.
25. Again literally, the text would mean 'the son'.
26. The dictionary meaning of the word snāyu is tendon, sinew,
muscle. 'K' interprets it as sūkṣma śirā. Śirā generally stands
for any tubular vessel but specifically for vein: thus, he means
a subtle vein Sinew is a fibrous tissue uniting muscle to bone.
It seems that even 'K' means sinew by his subtle vein.
27. Keśa and roma are hair on the head, and all over the body,
respectively. Probably we do not have separate words to
indicate this difference in English.
28. Ojas of the text not only means physical strength but also
vigour or energy in general, including splendour consequent
upon a full bloom of the organism.

Page 45

Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment 45
The embryo, with the cavities of ears covered by its
hands held in-between the two thighs, being afflicted by its
stay in the environment of the womb, recalls the experiences
of past lives along with the torments of various types, and
contemplating²⁹ the means of freedom, remains self-absorbed.
(34c-36b)
Skin and memory³⁰ develop in the eighth month.
Ojas³¹ the essence of vitality, pure and of yellowish red hue,
clear that the author points out the psychological process of the revival
of the thought body, the subtle vehicle that survives the death of the
gross body but remains inactive till the fifth month of gestation. It is
said, as it is implied in the text that, the individual soul witnesses the
revival of the experiences, the torments and the unfulfilled desires of
past lives and slowly gains self-awareness. Being self-aware, the self-
conscious individual tired of remaining in the closed atmosphere of
foetus, contemplates upon the means of release from the womb; and thus,
cooperates with the mother in her mental disposition of delivering the
child safely (cf., Caraka Śā. Sthā. 4.21-23 and Suśruta Śā. Sthā.
3.33-37).
Incidentally, the author also reveals the position of the embryo at
this stage of the development in the womb, which, as 'K' points out, is
upside down with limbs drawn in, the ear-cavities being covered by
hands held in-between the two thighs.
It is worthwhile to compare this period of gestation as dealt with
by Caraka and Suśruta (cf., Śā.Sthā. 4. 21-23 and 3.35-37 respectively).
For the fifth month, Caraka agrees only as far as addition to flesh and
blood is spoken of, and maintains that the enceinte feels languor parti-
cularly in this month. According to him, this process continues in the
sixth month on a greater scale. In the seventh month the foetus is
complete in all the elements physical as well as psychological, and the
enceinte feels greatly fatigued. Suśruta speaks of mental awakening in
the fifth month and the development of the intellect in the sixth month,
while in the seventh, all the organs and the suborgans of the body are
fully and distinctly developed.
29. The line 36ab of the text has been translated with the under-
lying idea in view.
30. 'S' reads as tvakśruti instead of tvaksmṛti which is a text
variant The significance of this reading has been related
above.
31. 'S' explains ojas as an essential element, while 'K' explains it

46 Treatment of Svara
residing in the heart³² and considered to be the sustaining
force of life, being unstable, fluctuates rapidly in-between the
mother and the foetus; that is why the eighth month issue,
being deprived of the life-force, does not survive³³; and if it
does for a while, it is due to the force of momentum, like a
dismembered limb. (36c-38)
Thus, the author seems to have relied on these sources put together
as far as the physiological details of embryology are concerned. But
he has supplemented this account with the essentials of corresponding
purāṇic tradition (cf., Srimad-bhāgavatam III. 31) as far as the psycholo-
gical and the philosophical aspects of the origin and development of the
life-principle are concerned.
The author has already spoken of complexion in the sixth month
and of past recollections in the seventh month; thus, under the circum-
stance, ‘K’ raises the question as to why he once again speaks of the skin
and memory; and then he offers to explain that, in the eighth month the
skin becomes compact and thick and memory brings in the element of
choice, i.e., the operation of will. However, ‘S’reads śruti instead of
smṛti. He therefore interprets that the embryo is able to listen to
outside sounds, and he rather warns us not to identify śruti with the
sense of hearing.
In the āyurvedic system, ojas is considered to be the principle of
vital warmth and action throughout the body. It is difficult to identify
this life-principle in terms of modern anatomy. However, the statement
of the author is well-supported by Caraka and Suśruta (cf., Śā. Sthā.
4 24 & 3.38 respectively). ‘K’ elucidates ojas as ‘bright pithy,
substance’ which is said to be pure in so far as it is not vitiated by
the impurities of the atmosphere outside the body. It is slightly of
yellowish tinge on a red base, and is produced by and resides in the
heart; its function is to regulate and to support the movement of the
vital breath in the body. The purport of the text is that in the eighth
month the life principle, i.e., the vital force that regulates the flow of
the vital breath, becomes unsteady and alternately moves from the
embryo. Consequently, as explained by ‘K’, if the child is born in the
eighth month while the vital force is residing with the mother, the
32. Produced by the heart in the sense that it resides in the
heart, according to ‘K’.
33. That the eighth month issue does not live, does not necessarily
imply the completion of the 8th month for the child to live,
but implies rather the death of either the child or the mother
as explained above.
Section 2 : The Genesis of the Human Embodiment
The parturition³⁴ takes place after the ninth³⁵ month
commences. (39 ab)
• The placenta³⁶ of the foetus is joined to the lymphatic
vessels³⁷ of the mother by the umbilical cord, through
child dies as soon as it is born; but if the vital force is with the child
at the time of delivery, it is the mother who dies; and in case the
vital force is in transit, both the mother and the child may not survive.
‘K.R.’ finds in this statement a probable explanation of still birth. To
a possible objection that sometimes the eighth month issues are also
observed to be alive for some time after their birth, the author offers
an explanation: just as when a limb is cut off from the body, it keeps
on throbbing for sometime due to the momentum of the breath left in
it, so also the child born in the eighth month, even though devoid of
the vital force in its entirety, yet lives for sometime, its organism having
been vitalised by it shortly before the delivery; in other words, it lives
till the momentum of the vital force lasts.
What is the normal time for the delivery of the child, is the ques-
tion considered here. Delivery, according to our author, may normally
take place any time after the ninth month commences. The expression
navamādi in the text implies, as noted by ‘K’, that it may even take place
in the tenth or in the eleventh month as well. This contention seems to
be supported by Suśruta (cf., Śā. Sthā. 3.39) who even visualises the
possibility of parturition taking place in the twelfth month in exception-
al cases, beyond which he declares it to be indicative of something
wrong. Caraka too seems to be of the same opinion (cf., Sa. Sthā.
4.25). He says that the ninth month would commence even after one
day upon the completion of the eighth month, and that the delivery can
take place normally from the ninth to the twelfth month, beyond which
something wrong must be inferred. Obviously all agree as to the mini-
mum period of gestation, which is eight completed months.
34. The delivery of the child.
35. Navamādi of the text implies literally beginning with the ninth
month (from conception).
36. Placenta is defined in the dictionary as, flattened circular
spongy vascular organ in higher mammals, expelled in partu-
rition after nourishing foetus which is attached to it by umbi-
lical cord. Parā-nāḍī is identified with placenta.
37. Rasavahā nāḍī etymologically means the vein or artery carrying
assimilated food.