रूपमण्डन एवं देवमूर्त्ति-प्रकरणम् (मण्डन सूत्रधार - प्राचीन मूर्तिकला एवं देव-प्रतिमा लक्षण सटीक)

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extant and of this work, we have a critical ed. It gives a list of
thirty-two 32 authorities :—
विश्वकर्मा च विश्वेश(शः) विश्वसारं(रः) प्रबोधकः ।
वृतश्चैव मयश्चैव त्वष्टा चैव मनुर्नलः ॥ ५ ॥
मानविन्मानकल्पश्च मानसारो बहुश्रुतः।
प्रष्टा च मानवोधश्च विश्वबोधो ना(न)यश्च तथा ॥ ६ ॥
आदिसारो विशालश्च विश्वकाश्यप ए(श्चै)व च ।
वास्तुबोधो महातन्त्रो वास्तुविद्यापतिस्तथा ॥ ७ ॥
पाराशरीयकश्चैव कालयूपो महाऋषिः(हर्षिश्च) ।
चैत्याख्यः चितकः आ(श्रा)वर्यः साधकसारसहितः ॥ ८ ॥
भानुश्चेन्द्रश्च लोकज्ञः सौराख्यः शिल्पिवित्तमः ।
तदेव ( ते एव ) ऋषयः प्रोक्ता द्वात्रिंशतिः संख्यया ॥ ९ ॥
॥ अध्यायः ६८ ॥
गङ्गाशिरःकमलभू-कमलेक्षणेन्द्र-गीर्वाण-नारदमुखैरखिलैर्मुनीन्द्रैः ।
प्रोक्तं समस्ततरवस्तुवि वास्तुशास्त्रं तन्मानसार-ऋषिणापि हि लक्ष्यते स्म ॥ २ ॥
( १ अध्यायः ) संग्रहः ॥
पितामहेन्द्रप्रमुखैः समस्तैः देवैरिदं शास्त्रवरं पुरोदितम् ।
तस्मात्समुद्धृत्य हि मानसारं शास्त्रं लोकहितार्थमेतत् ॥ ५८ ॥ अध्यायः ७० ॥
The list in the Agni-purāṇam as well as in the Mānasāra
is confusing and apparently corrupt. There are linguistic and other
difficulties in the readings of the Agni-purāṇa list³¹ of 25
authorities ; on the other hand, all these are said to be Pañcarātra
and Saptarātra works—probably both classes were Vaiṣṇava, if
the latter school at all existed. The Mānasāra list³² is equally
31. The reading in the Agni-purāṇam, chapter 39, v. 4, should be
कापिलं but the metre does not allow it. But in v. 5, we must read—आत्रेयं
नारसिंहाव्यमानन्दाख्यं तथाऽऽरुणम्। Or ०ख्यं लाऽऽरुणकम्। and not ०ख्यं तयारुणकम्।
See Note 26. Supra. The list there does not seem to contain (25) twenty-
five names, after all.
32. See Note 30 Supra and text.

( 12 )
dubious—similar or same names occurring repeatedly. Of some
names we are not sure if they are personal names or the titles of
works.
The Tibetan text, dpag bsam ljon bzaṅ³³ of Lama Sum-pa
mk'an-po ye-śes dpal-abyor (1702-1775), traces the origin of the
art of painting to Nagnajit:—how he painted the figure of a dead
Brahmin child and how the god, Brahman invested it with life.
Later on the art of painting was propagated through Viśvakarman,
and Ṛṣi Ātreya who discovered calligraphy. The latter is known
from Tibetan sources, as the author of an iconographic work, which
is preserved in translation, in the Tanjur³⁴.
Names of a few more authorities or masters are also known
from (stray mentions in) other sources. Their works are existent
mostly in Mss.
There is a Śilpa-śāstra ascribed to Kāśyapa, the Kāśyap-
īya³⁵, also called the Aṁśumad-bheda. It has been edited³⁶.
Kāśyapa is said to have learnt this science from Śiva.
The Agastya Sakalādhikāra is ascribed to Agastya³⁷.
"The work entitled Sacalādhicāra, an excellent but rather volumi-
nous performance, is attributed to Agastya, a sage whose history
occupies a conspicuous place in the Purāṇas. Some few sections
only of this work are to be now met with; and the portion which
33. Pag bsam ljon bzaṅ. Ed., Saratchandra Das. Calcutta, 1908.
p. 136ff.
34. Pratimānalakṣaṇa-nāma, classed under Tanjur. Section Mdo
—hgrel (Sūtra-vṛtti), Śilpa-vidyā-śāstras.
35. For Mss. of Kāśyapīya, see Catalogue Vol. XXII. Oriental Mss.
Library, Madras., pp. 8755ff. Nos. 13032, 13033. Also, Oppert: List of
Sanskrit Mss. in Private Libraries of South India, Vol. II, p. 395, No. 6336.
36. Kāśyapīya, quoted by Varāhamihira. Edited in Ānandāśram
Skt. Series, from Poona.
37. See P. K. Acharya: Indian Architecture according to Mānasāra-
śilpaśāstra. p. 100. For Mss. of the work, see Orient. Mss. Libr.,

( 13 )
has as yet come under my own observation, is exclusively on the
subject of sculpture as connected with the function of statues ;
but it is so diffuse, that if we suppose the whole work to be written
in a similar style, it must considerably exceed the volume of
Mānasāra, the largest at present of my collection.”³⁸
There is also, the Sanatkumāra-vāstuśāstra³⁹, of Sanat-
kumāra, who acknowledges his debt to other Ācāryas, among
whom are Candra and Yama, Bhārgava, Aṅgiras, Manu, Vyāsa,
Bhṛgu.
38. Rām Rāz ; Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus, (London,
M. DCCC. xxxiv.) p. 8.
“The small portion which has come under my observation of the work
called sacalādhicára,—‘the universal authority’, does not furnish sufficient
data to form any opinion of the precise time at which it was composed ; and
in the section which gives rules for carving statues, “...the only part...seen, I
find no mention of the saints...” “who have been admitted among the inferior
divinities.” “It is generally believed to have been composed by Agastya,
under the auspices of the founder of the Púndya government, a circumstance
which, if admitted, would give to this Work a very high antiquity. Mr.
Wilson,...places this event three or four centuries before the Christian æra,
although in another place he fixes the date of the civilization of the South of
India, ten centuries before Christ, but the data on which this conjecture is
formed is imperfect. There exists a long list of the princes of the Púndya, and
their contemporary Chola and Chéra dynasties, many of whom appear to
have reigned long anterior to the Christian æra, and their celebrity to have
attracted the notice of Ptolemy. The few facts,...recorded of those dynasties
...are unfortunately inadequate to the formation of...sketch of their history,
or to trace their chronology . . ; but the various accounts...of these ancient
monarchies, though they usually commence with the earliest ages, and are
blended with...fictions, would still afford...proofs of the establishment of these
principalities at an earlier period than...hitherto assigned. And as the
Mahábhárat, which is believed to have been composed by Vyása, in the
beginning of Kaliyug, makes mention of the Púndya and Chola governments,
we must give them credit for higher antiquity.” Ràm Ràz, op. cit., p. 10-11.
39. P. K. Acharya : Op. cit., p. 102. For Mss., see Eggeling, III.
3151, 2680 ; Oppert, Vol. I, No. 8239. In Orient. Mss. Libr., Madras,
Cat. Vol. XXII, Nos., 13060-13068, there are nine Mss., mostly fragments.

( 14 )
There is also a Sārasvatīya-śilpa-śāstra⁴⁰ ascribed to
Sarasvatī.
The Paulastya, Sārasvata, Manohalya, Brahma, Kaumudīka,
Nārāyaṇīya (Śilpa-śāstras ?) are also known through quotations⁴¹ ;
similarly, are Vasiṣṭha, Nārada, Varāha, Māṇḍavya⁴².
Indra, Bhārgava, Āṅgirasa, Dhruva, Gautama, Gārgeya,
Manu, Vyāsa and Bhṛgu are also mentioned⁴³.
The Aparājita-pṛcchā⁴⁴ is said to be revealed by God
at the request of Aparājita ; it was quoted by Hemādri⁴⁵
while, the Aparājita-vāstu-śāstra⁴⁶ is ascribed to Viśva-
karman⁴⁷
A Gārgī-saṃhitā⁴⁷ᵃ was known long ago and a Gārgya-
saṃhitā⁴⁷ᵇ also exists. Both have been preserved in modern
copies.
40. Aufrecht : Op. cit., Vol. I, p. 714.
41. See Orient. Mss. Libr., Madras, Cat. Vol. XXII, No. 13058,
Śilpasaṃgraha. It expressly mentions the sources it has been compiled
from.
42. See P. K. Acharya : A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture,
Appendix I. p. 803. Quoted in Saṃgraha-śiromaṇi by Sarayu Prasad.
43. See Oriental Mss. Libr., Cat. Vol. XXII, No. 13057.
44. An edition of the Aparājita-pṛcchā was announced long ago in the
GOS. But the work has not yet come out. Dr. Bhandarkar : Report
(1883-84), p. 276, sub voce. Compare also Śilpa-grantha in Eggeling :
Op. cit., Mss. 3152, 1603b.
45. "Quoted by Hemādri in Pariśeṣakhaṇḍa 2, 660-62, 819" Aufrecht
Cat. Catalog. Vol II, p. 4.
46. Dr. Bühler : Catalogue of Sanskrit Mss. contained in private
Libraries—, 1872, p. 276.
47 a. Varāhamihira's Bṛhat-saṃhitā. (Ed., Bibliotheca Indica).
Introduction by Kern, p. p. 33 ff.
47 b. P. K. Acharya : A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture. Appen-
dix I. sub. voce. "Mss. R. 15. 96., in Trinity College, Cambridge . . .

( 15 )
“According to the Mahābhārata 9. 37, 14f. there is a sacred
place Garga-srotas, “Garga’s stream”, on the Sarasvatī, named
after the venerable ascetic Garga, who was famous on account of
his knowledge of time”, “and the movements of the celestial
bodies”. “To the same (later) period (of Indian astronomy)
belongs also the Gārgī-saṃhitā of Garga who was always
regarded as a highly distinguished authority on Astronomy ;
the Vṛddha-Gārga-saṃhitā, which exists, dealt, it is true,
chiefly with astrology but it also contained (discussions on)
Astronomy⁴⁸ᵃ.”
The Bṛhat-saṃhitā⁴⁸ᵇ of Varāhamihira mentions Garga,
Maya, Viśvakarman, Vasiṣṭha and Nagnajit, as also, Bhāskara
and Manu.
Works of Bhāskara and Gaṇapati are also quoted from, in
the Vāstu-sāraṇī⁴⁹, a modern compilation ; these may be authentic
Śilpaśāstrakāras whose names are known from other sources, and
whose works might be preserved.
Bhagavān Gaṇapati is mentioned, among later writers only
by Madhusūdana Sarasvatī in his Prasthānabheda⁵⁰, as a master
of dramaturgy, Bharataśāstram :—
48a. M. Winternitz : Geschichte III. pp. 556-57. Bracketed portions
in the above translation are ours.
48b. Bṛhat-saṃhitā. Edited by Kern. Bibliotheca Indica, Asiatic Soc.
Bengal ; also, edited by Mm. Sudhākara Dvivedin with Bhaṭṭotpala’s com-
mentary, Vizianagram Skt. Series, Benares.
49. P. K. Acharya : Op. cit. Appendix I. sub-voce. Vāstu-sāraṇī
by Matīprasāda Pāṇḍe. Benares, 1901. Bhāskara is quoted early, in
Varāhamihira’s Bṛhat-saṃhitā. (Ed. Kern) Ch. 58, 52.
50. These surprisingly informative and new texts are not to be found
in the ordinary edition of the Prasthānabheda by Śrī Madhusudana Sarasvatī
e. g. from Śrī Vāṇīvilās Press, Śrīraṅgam, 1912. Nor are they to be found
in the closely analogous passage in Śrī Madhusūdana’s learned commentary
to the ŚIVA-MAHIMNA-STAVA, edited by Panśīkar Lakṣaṇa Vāsudeva,
Nirṇayasāgar Press, Bombay under the most famous and oft-quoted verse :—

( 16 )
॥ १८. भरतशास्त्रम् ॥
एवं नाट्यभरत-हस्तभरत-भावभरत-नेत्रभरत-अभिनयभरत-वाग्भरत गीतवाद्यादि-
सप्तशतभरतप्रबोधकं चतुध्व(ष्ष)ष्ट्यध्यायात्मकं भरतशास्त्रं भगवता गणपतिना
विरचितम् ॥
The Prasthānabheda also mentions Bhīmasena as the author
of the canons of painting, Citrakarma-śāstram :—
॥ १६. चित्रकर्मशास्त्रम् ॥
एवं नखचित्र-केशचित्र-शल्यचित्र-अङ्गचित्र-भावचित्र-आवृत्तचित्र-शिलाचित्र-लोह-
चित्राद्येकोननवत्युत्तरशतचित्रप्रबोधकं द्वात्रिंशदध्या[या]त्मकं चित्रकर्मशास्त्रं भीम-
विरचितम् ॥
The same Prasthānabheda further informs that Kaśyapa
was the author of a voluminous Śilpaśāstra :—
॥ ७. शिल्पशास्त्रम् ॥
एवं यक्षशिल्पि गन्धर्वशिल्पि-किन्नरशिल्पि-किंपुरुषशिल्प्यसुरशिल्पि-दैवशिल्पि-मानुष-
शिल्प्यदि-सप्तोत्तरत्रिशतशिल्पप्रभेदान्संग्रहेण निरूप्य भूलोकसंबंधदैवविग्रहदेवालय-
राजगृहगरुडस्तंभकुड्यमंटपाद्येकोत्तरशतविधरचनाविधिगर्भितं कश्यपछायापुरुषमारुतिमय-
विश्वकर्मत्वष्टृमनुबाणशिल्पिवर्धनवटकशल्यतिप्रभृतीनां परस्परशिल्पप्रभेदमार्गप्रदर्शनपूर्वकं
द्विचत्वारिंशदुत्तरैकसहस्रप्रबोधकं द्वाविंश-गुच्छपरिमितं शिल्पशास्त्रं भगवता कश्यपेन
प्रणीतम् ॥

त्रयी सांख्यं योगः पशुपतिमतं वैष्णवमिति प्रभिन्ने प्रस्थाने परमिदमदः पथ्यं हितमिति च ।
रुचीनां वैचित्र्यादृजुकुटिलनानापथजुषां नृणामेको गम्यस्त्वमसि पयसामर्णव इव ॥
The Prasthānabheda of Śrī M. seems to be an elaboration of, if not
identical with his elucidations or comments to the passage 'प्रभिन्ने प्रस्थाने' in
the above verse, of the Ode—which is one of the gems of Sanskrit Literature.
This superb verse may be thus freely rendered into English :—
Diverse are the canons—viz. the three (revealed Vedic Texts)
Sāṁkhya, Yoga, the doctrines of the Pāśupatas and the Vaiṣṇavas—
this one may be supreme, or that one may be salutary and good. People
[tread] paths straight or circuitous, owing to their different

[ 17 ]
Regarding the Śilpa Śāstras, Rám Ráz says⁵¹ :—
"It is true that the Hindus were in possession of numerous
treatises on architecture, sculpture, &c., which collectively are called
the Śilpa Śāstra, but unfortunately few traces of them remain.
There appears to have been, according to some, thirty-two, and
according to others sixty-four, standard treatises on the above-
mentioned arts·········
In a series of memorial verses preserved among the artists,
are recorded the names of the authors or titles of the above men-
tioned sixty-four treatises. Of these, thirty-two are called Muc'hya,
or principal, and thirty-two Upa or subordinate.
They (verses) contain little more than titles···mostly
patronymics of the deities who···revealed the particular art or

temperaments. But like unto the rivers, which take direct routes or run
along circuitous courses, and yet, ultimately, find their ways and merge
into the sea — even, like unto that, indeed, O ! my Lord, you alone are
the sole Refuge of the human beings.
These three most important references to the ancient Masters—
Bhagavān Gaṇapati, Bhīma and Kaśyapa — the first two references
being especially striking, are to be found in Prasthāna Thraya Madhusūdana
Saraswati Smriti. Reproduced by Pandit T. Subraya Sastri of Bangalore.
Transl. into Eng. by the Late Ratanlal M. Mody and G. Venkatachala
Sarma of Bangalore. V. B. Soobbiah & Sons. Bangalore, 1931.
Though there are some anachronisms in the edition, as regards
Śrī Madhusūdana's date etc., there are the strongest grounds to suppose
that the learned Paṇḍita's wonderful edition is absolutely genuine. As,
many of the Texts, mentioned are actually traceable and one, even,
published by the same—viz. the Aṁśu-bodhinī of Bhāradvāja Ṛṣi with
Comm.
As regards the time etc. of Śrī Madhusūdana Sarasvatī, a few words
would be not out-of-place. He flourished before Śrī Caitanyadeva, in
Bengal and was the author of several works of great erudition, among
which are Bhaktirasāyanam (Ed. Acyutagranthamālā, Benares) and
Advaitasiddhi (Ed. Rajendra Ghosh, Calcutta).
51. Rám Ráz : Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus, London,
M. DCCC. XXXIV.

[ 18 ]
arts on which each work treated, or of the authors of the treatises
themselves, the renowned Rishis or holy men, who are said to
have flourished in the earlier ages."
The South Indian Āgamas are extensive works and deal
mostly with Śiva. There are twenty-eight recognized Āgamas.⁵²
Some of them incidentally deal with architectural subjects, in great
52 a. For the South Indian Śaivāgamas see :—H. W. Schomerus :
Der Caiva-Siddhānta eine mystik Indiens. Leipzig, J. C. Hinrichs'sche
Buchhandlung, 1912. Pp. 7ff. Einleitung : 2. Die Caivāgama, die Haupt-
autorität des Caiva-Siddhānta (a) Der Ursprung and das Alter der Āgama
(b) Die Gruppierung der Āgama and ihr Umfang ; J. M. Nallaswāmi Pillai ;
Śivajñāna Siddhiyār of Arunandi Śivāchārya. Madras, Meykandan Press,
1913. Pp. lii—lv. List of Āgamas or Tantra with Upāgamas.
52 b. "Some of the Āgamas deal with very technical matters, which
are not met with in the Purāṇas. Moreover, some Āgamas, to all intents and
purposes, are but architectural treatises. The Kāmikāgama, for instance,
devotes sixty chapters out of a total of seventy-five to architecture and
sculpture, and its treatment of the subjects can hardly be surpassed by that
of an avowedly architectural treatise".
"The Kāraṇāgama also devotes much space to architecture and sculp-
ture. There are thirty-seven chapters in the Āgama, which deal with these
subjects exhaustively. It makes a distinct addition to the Āgamas' contribu-
tions to the Śilpa-śāstras. It contributes two valuable chapters dealing with
the details of the nine and ten tāla measures. This is also a highly techni-
cal matter concerning sculpture and entirely missing in the Purāṇas".
"The Suprabhedāgama has devoted only fifteen chapters to architecture
and sculpture. Nor has it anything new to add to the Āgamas' contribu-
tions to the Śilpa-śāstras. But its unique nature consists in the fact that
it has quite successfully summarised all important matters in a comparatively
small space, and in respect of brevity, explicitness and precision it surpasses
even the Bṛhat-saṃhitā of Varāhamihira."
"The Vaikhānasāgama has two chapters on sculpture, one of which
deals with the general description of images and the other with the ten
tāla measures. The Aṁśumad-bhedāgama has a single chapter on the ten
tāla measures."
P. K. Acharya : Ind. Architecture according to the Mānaṣāra,
pp. 23—28 The Āgamas.

[ 19 ]
detail. The oldest Śaivāgama extant the (Uttara) Kāmikāgama
is probably not older than the 5th or 6th century A. C.⁵³.
We owe it entirely to (the religious zeal of) the Buddhists,
the conservation, for posterity, of some Śilpa Texts—both Buddhistic
and Brahmanical, and perhaps, even Jaina—a few of which are
entirely lost in Sanskrit. Wonderfully accurate translations of
the Sanskrit versions, for example, of the Works of Ātreya
and of Nagnajit, are preserved in the encyclopædic Tibetan
compilation Bstan-ḥgyur.⁵⁴ Dr. Berthold Laufer had brought
out a critical edition of the Tibetan version of Citralakṣaṇam⁵⁵
ascribed to Nagnajit.
Of special importance are some of the original Sanskrit
texts, procured from Nepal, mainly through the initiative
of the present writer. And by him some of these have been
published for the first time. Further information regarding Śilpa
works, preserved in Tibetan translation and procured in their
original, have also been given, elsewhere, fully, by the present
writer.⁵⁶
Besides these, a few Śilpa Texts of purely Buddhistic nature,
are preserved, in Ceylon. They are in corrupt Sanskrit surely
probably Post-Buddhistic. The most important among them, is the
Sāriputra⁵⁷ ascribed to Sāriputra, a direct disciple of the Blessed
One.
53. T. A. Gopinatha Rao : Elements of Hindu Iconography. Vol. I,
Part I, p. 55.
54. Cordier : Catalogue du Fonds Tibétain de la Bibliothéque
Nationale. Bstan-hgyur, Section. Mdo-hgrel Sūtra-vṛtti, Commentary
on the sūtras, classed under the general name Śilpa-vidyā-śāstras, p. 474.
55. See Note 29, Supra.
56. Haridas Mitra : The Buddhapratimā-lakṣaṇam with the Com-
mentary Vivaraṇī. The Prince of Wales Sarasvatī-bhavana Sanskrit
Texts. No. 48. (Benares, 1933). See the Introduction.
57. Through the kind help of Bhadanta Mañjuśrī, very obliging
Buddhist Monk who is well grounded in Pāli and Sanskrit, I was able

[ 20 ]
The Buddha-pratimā-lakṣaṇam is preserved also in a Chinese
version.⁵⁸ We thus have three versions of this Śilpa text—
the original Sanskrit, the Tibetan and the Chinese Translations,
for comparison.
But the Jainas preceded the Buddhists in the adoption of
an iconolatrous cult. Very probably, the artistic study,
for representation, of the undraped human body, originated with
the Nirgrantha and the Ājīvika ascetics, who went about naked
and had daily chances for observing the natural bodily forms,
in course of their ascetic practices ⁵⁹ Indeed, the Jainas
contributed, from early times, very considerably to the develop-
ment of the plastic and the graphic arts of India.⁶⁰
Though the Buddhists as well as the Jainas have made
important contributions to art the Brāhmaṇic art traditions—as
contained in the Śilpa-śāstras, are perhaps much earlier.
The Vāstu-śāstras and its subsidiary branch the Śilpa-śāstras
have been generally included into one of the Upavedas—
the Artha-śāstra, by Madhusūdana Sarasvatī⁶¹:—

to prepare for my personal use a Nāgarī transcription of this important
Text and its Ceylonese Commentary.
This learned monk has also undertaken to transcribe in Nāgarī, for
my use, the two remaining chapters of the Sāriputra, as also the Rūpāvalī.
I am preparing to publish critical editions of these important Texts of
Buddhistic Art in near future.
58. See Haridas Mitra : Op. cit., Appendix : Tsao-siang-tou-leang-
king.
59a. See Berthold Laufer : Op. cit., Einleitung. Seit 8 und Seit 17.
59b. The present writer, owes it to the kindness of the learned Muni
Jina-vijayajī, the information regarding the existence of a single Jaina
Śilpa Canon. It is in a fragmentary state of preservation and in MS.
The Authorship of the Work is ascribed to Thakkar Ph(F)eru.
60. Full discussions of these questions have been given in my
Contributions to (the study of) Indian Iconometry, in course of
publication.
61. Madhusūdana Sarasvatī : Prasthāna-bheda. (Ed., T. Subraya
Śāstrī, Mangalore).

[ 21 ]
अथोपवेदाः ॥ आयुर्वेदो, धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्ववेदोऽर्थशास्त्रं चेति चत्वार उपवेदाः ॥
॥ अथार्थशास्त्राणि ॥
एवमर्थशास्त्रं च बहुविधम् । नीतिशास्त्रं [अश्वशास्त्रं] शिल्पशास्त्रं सूप[कार-]
शास्त्रं चतुष्षष्टिकलाशास्त्रं चेति । अपि च भौतिकादिभौतिकशास्त्राण्यपि । नानामुनिभिः
प्रणीतं तत्सर्वं[ । ] तस्य सर्वस्य च लौकिकत(व)त्प्रयोजनभेदो द्रष्टव्यः ॥
But there is hardly any authority or cogency, for including
the sciences of art, architecture, sculpture etc.—the Vāstu-śāstras
and the Śilpa-śāstras, into the science of polity—the Artha-
śāstra.
On the other hand, the preparation of the Gnomon Śaṅku-
nirmāṇam, and ascertaining by it the cardinal points (of the
compass), the plotting of the ground-plan by means of the plumb
and other lines Sūtra-pāta etc., are really subjects, appertaining
alike both to the Vedāṅgic—Jyautiṣa, (Kalpa) Śulva-sūtras,
and the Śilpa-śāstras. The Śilpa-śāstras are therefore closely
related to the Vedāṅgas and must be regarded as a Vedic Upāṅga.
The Śulva-sūtras⁶²ᵃ form supplementary parts of the Kalpa-
sūtras and prescribe rules for the construction of sacrificial Altars—
Śulva having the sense of Rajju, cords for measurement of
distances.
The two most important treatises of Śulvasūtras are those of
Baudhāyana and Āpastamba. Two smaller treatises of later
dates, are the Mānava and the Maitrāyaṇīya Śulva-sūtras. There
is also a Kātyāyana Śulva Pariśiṣṭa, belonging to the Śukla
Yajuṣ.⁶²ᵇ
The emendations (within brackets) of the Nāgarī Text, are by
the present writer, from a comparison of the different editions.
62a. Dr. G. Thibaut : Sūlva Sūtras. J. A. S. B. Part I. 1875 ;
Also, the Paṇḍit. Old Series (1874, 1876) Vols. IX & X ; and New Series
(1876, 1882) Vols. I & IV.
62b. Prof. M. Winternitz : A History of Indian Literature. Vol. I,
(Cal. Univ. 1927). P. 277. "Only in the Black Yajurveda schools of
Baudhāyana and of Āpastamba do we find Kalpasūtras containing all the
four kinds of sūtra texts, Śrauta, Gṛhya, Dharma and Śulva-sūtras ; and

[ 22 ]
The Śulva-sūtras give directions for construction of the fire
Altars, the Vedis and the Citis etc.
From the root ciñ cayane, to collect —— are derived,
the three most important terms :—
a. Citi—Sacrificial altars, for gathering the holy fire
agnicayana, agnyādhāna.
b. Citā—The funeral pyre for the cremation of dead bodies.
c. Caitya—Monuments enclosing post-cremation human
remains, sacred relics—the Buddhadhātu, etc.
in these cases it can be proved that these works are indeed so interconnected
that, to a certain extent, they can be regarded as the four volumes of a
uniform work. It is possible that Baudhāyana and Āpastamba were actually
the authors of complete Kalpasūtras comprising all the four kinds of texts.
But even if they were not the actual authors, at all events, the Śrauta, Gṛhya,
Dharma and Śulvasūtras of Baudhāyana and Āpastamba schools are works
composed on a uniform plan, of these two schools* of the Yajurveda.…
* The Baudhāyana-Śulvasūtra has been edited and translated by
G. Thibaut in the "Pandit", Vols. IXff ; the Āpastambīya-Śulvasūtra ed.
and translated into German by Albert Bürk. ZDMG., Vols. 55, 56,
1901—2.*”
P. 278. "The Śrauta, Gṛhya and Śulvasūtras of the Mānava school*,
and the Kāṭhaka-Gṛhyasūtra, which is related to the Mānava-Gṛhyasūtra,
come under the Maitrayaṇī-saṃhitā...
* The Mānava-Śrautasūtra is perhaps the oldest Śrautasūtra. Garbe
has shown that it is certainly older than Āpastamba who refers to it.
P. 278-79. "To the White Yajurveda belong : a Kātyāyana-Śrauta
sūtra, a Pāraskara Gṛhyasūtra and a Kātyāyana-Śulva-sūtra.*
* A Pariśiṣṭa to this (Kātīyam Śulvapariśiṣṭam)—ed. by G. Thibaut
in "Pandit", N. S., Vol. 4.*”
P. 271. "Ritual (Kalpa), which constitutes the chief contents of the
Brāhmaṇas, is...the first Vedāṅga to receive systematic treatment in
special manuals, the so-called Kalpasūtras. They arose out of the need for
compiling the rules for the sacrificial ritual in a shorter, more manageable
and connected form for the practical purposes of the priests."
P. 275. "The Śulvasūtras, which are directly attached to the Śrauta-
sūtras, should be mentioned in connection with these Kalpasūtras. They

[ 23 ]
Indeed, the beginnings of the Vāstu-śāstras and the Śilpa-
śāstras are to be traceable to the Vedāṅgic Jyautiṣa, (Kalpa) Śulva-
sūtras⁶³ on the one hand, and to the Tāntrika ritualistic Yantras
and Maṇḍalas⁶⁴ etc., on the other.
Among the treatises on Nīti and its sub-class Vārtā and
on Jyotiṣa, the Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya, the Śukranīti and the
Bṛhatsaṃhitā of Varāhamihira call for special notice.
The Indian Artha and the Nīti Śāstras have been called
poly-technical treatises⁶⁵; and the Vārtā appertains to Economics.⁶⁶
The Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya devotes some six or seven
chapters to town-planning, the construction of residential build-
ings and fort, and specially military architecture. The Artha-
śāstra of Kauṭilya is an old work but in its present form not older
than the 3rd century A.C.⁶⁷
In ‘Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra, Viśālākṣa, Bāhudantiputra,
Bṛhaspati and Uśanas have been cited as teachers of Artha.
Compare also Kāmasūtra, p. 3f., where it is narrated, that from
the great work by the creator Brahman on the Trivarga, Manu
separated the part dealing with Dharma, Bṛhaspati—that on
Artha and Nandin, Śiva's servant—the one on Kāma. Mahā-
bhārata, XII, 59, 28ff., 76ff.’
contain exact rules for the measurement (Śulva means "measuring-
string") and the building of the place of sacrifice and the fire-altars,
and as the oldest works on Indian Geometry, are of no little importance
for the history of science."
63. See Note 62. Supra.
64. For examples, see श्रीश्रीशारदातिलकतन्त्रम् । Shāradātilakatantram, with
commentary पदार्थादर्श। Padārthādarsha. Edited by Aṭalānanda Sarasvatī.
Tantrik Texts Vols. XVI. and XVII. Paṭala 3.
65. P. K. Acharya : Ind. Arch, p. 132.
66. Narendranath Law: Vārtā—The ancient Hindu Economics,
Ind. Antiq., Vol. XLVII, p. 256.
67. M. Winternitz : Geschichte der indischen Litteratur, III
Band, (Leipzig. 1922), p. 523.

[ 24 ]
'Viśālākṣa—the great-eyed one, is one name of Śiva.
And Bāhudantin is another name of Indra'.⁶⁸ In the Matsya
Purāṇa, Viśālākṣa, Nandin, Indra, Śukra and Bṛhaspati are, all
of them, cited as teachers of Śilpa.⁶⁹
Among them Nandikeśvara or Nandiśvara was also an
ancient teacher of Kāmaśāstra. Besides, this there is one Nandi-
keśvara who was the author of an work on Abhinaya—Abhinaya-
darpaṇam, 'the Mirror of Gestures'.⁷⁰
'Bṛhaspati is at the same time a teacher of the Lokāyata
system, and there is close relationship, between Lokāyata and
Arthaśāstra. From the Mahābhārata, it is learnt, that the
Indian Tradition regarded Bṛhaspati as the Founder of the
Arthaśāstra. This old Arthaśāstra of Bṛhaspati, alas, is
preserved to us only in a version strongly altered and mixed-up with
modern elements.'⁷¹
'The Śukranīti⁷² i. e., the Textbook on Politics written by
Śukra or Uśanas is a work of quite recent times, if we do not call
68. See Dr. M. Winternitz : Geschichte der indischen Litteratur, III
Band. (Leipzig. 1922), pp. 507-8 and p. 508 Note 1. Free translation of this
Note is given above.
69. See Text and Note 25. Supra.
70. Nandikeśvara's Abhinaya-darpaṇam. Edited by Manomohan
Ghosh. Calcutta Sanskrit Series. No. 5. (Metropolitan Printing and Publishing
House, Ltd. Calcutta, 1934). For further information regarding Nandi-
keśvara, see the present writer (Haridas Mitra's) : Sadāśiva Worship.
J.P.A.S.B. (New Series). Vol. XXIX, 1933. App. III, see under Nandi-
keśvara.
71. M. Winternitz : Geschichte der indischen Litteratur, Band III,
p. 508. (The above passage has been rendered freely into English, from
this book, by the present writer.
72. M. Winternitz : Op. cit., p. 532 (Free Translation). "Besides
the edition of Śukranīti of G. Oppert (Madras, 1882) there is also one of
Jīvānanda Vidyāsāgara (Calcutta, 1882) and several Indian Prints with
translations in Bengali, Marāthi and Hindi. Text : another Ed. by B. K.
Sarkar (New York, 1915); Eng. Transl., by the same (Allahabad). On

[ 25 ]
it, a forgery. Whether the remnants of an old Arthaśāstra have
been preserved in the Śukranīti or not must be investigated first.’
The Śukranīti in an older form may be anterior to the Matsya-P.,
which mentions Śukrācārya, as one of the eighteen authorities
of architecture—Vāstuśāstropadeśakas.⁷³ The Śukranīti deals
with architecture and sculpture in chapter IV, sections 4 and 6.
There are frequent and casual references to both these subjects
in other portions of the treatise as well.⁷⁴
‘Varāhamihira’s Bṛhatsaṃhitā is one of the most important
works of the Indian literature. It is a principal work on natural
Astrology. As this subject is of importance in all departments of
life, all the varied branches of the public and the private
life have been treated in the work. Hence it partakes to some
extent of an encyclopædic character and is concerned with
numerous other arts and sciences’.⁷⁵
Thus the Bṛhatsaṃhitā, usually classed under the astro-
nomical and astrological treatises, is but a semi-Purāṇa, dealing, as
it does, with heterogeneous subjects like the Purāṇas themselves.
... In this treatise there are but five chapters devoted to both
architecture and sculpture. But the subjects have been treated with
a master hand. ... Quite consistently with his sense of proportion
Varāhamihira devotes only one chapter to sculpture, in which
details of images are described in a scientific manner which is
the Śukranīti, B. K. Sarkar based The Positive Background of Hindu
Sociology I, II (The Sacred Books of the Hindus, Allahabad)”.
73. Matsya-Purāṇam, (Ānandāśram Ed., 1907), chap. 252. See Note
25. supra.
74. P. K. Acharya : A Dictionary of Hindu Arch., p. 799 ; also see
Śukranīti Text ; and the Engl. Transl. by B. K. Sarkar.
75. M. Winternitz : Geschichte III, p. 567.
Bṛhatsaṃhitā :—Ed. by H. Kern (Bibliotheca Indica) ; Ed. by Mm.
Sudhākara Dvivedin with the Commentary of Bhaṭṭotpala (Vizianagram
Sanskrit Series) ; Transl. for the greater part by H. Kern. JRAS.
(1870—75). Complete Translation by Chidambaram Iyer (Madura, 1884).
D—4

[ 26 ]
distinctly missing in other ancient literatures......in his treatise seven
architectural authorities are mentioned distinctly."⁷⁶
The authorities of architecture and sculpture, specially
mentioned are Maya and Viśvakarman, Garga and Manu, Nagnajit,
Vasiṣṭha and Bhāskara.⁷⁷
CHAPTER III
THE CANONS OF INDIAN ART (Contd.)
While, it is not necessary to make anything more than only
passing reference to the Vedic, the Epic (Itihāsa) and the
Classical Sanskrit and the Buddhist literatures etc., on subjects
like architecture, art etc., these being dealt with, at great
lengths by more competent scholars, elsewhere, the Purāṇas
in this connexion call for special notice⁷⁸.
76. P. K. Acharya : Ind. Arch., p. 22.
77. भूमिकाङ्गुलमानेन मध्यस्याष्टोत्तरं शतम् ।
सार्धं हस्तद्वयं चैव कथितं विश्वकर्मणा ॥ २६ ॥
प्रासादलक्षणमिदं कथितं समासाद्
गर्गेण यद्विरचितं तदिहास्ति सर्वम् ।
मन्वादिभिर्विरचितानि पृथूनि यानि
तत्संस्कृतिं प्रति मयात्र कृतोऽधिकारः ॥ ३१ ॥ षट्पञ्चाशोऽध्यायः ॥
अष्टौ सीसकभागाः कांसस्य द्वौ तु रीतिकाभागः ।
मयकथितो योगोऽयं विज्ञेयो वज्रसंघातः ॥ ८ ॥ सप्तपञ्चाशोऽध्यायः ॥
स्वैरङ्गुलप्रमाणैर्द्वादश विस्तीर्णमायतं च मुखम् ।
नग्नजिता तु चतुर्दश दैर्घ्येण द्राविडं कथितम् ॥ ४ ॥
चतुरङ्गुलं वसिष्ठः कथयति नेत्रान्तकर्णयोर्विवरम् ।
अधरोऽङ्गुलप्रमाणस्तस्यार्धेनोत्तरोष्ठश्च ॥ ८ ॥
अञ्चलमूर्ध्वं दृष्ट्वा करोति चिन्तामधोमुखी दृष्टिः ।
सर्वप्रतिमास्वेवं शुभाशुभं भास्करोक्तसमम् ॥ ५२ ॥ अष्टपञ्चाशोऽध्यायः ॥
The Bṛhatsaṁhitā of Varāhamihira. Ed. H. Kern, (Bibliotheca
Indica).
78. For General information in full, regarding the Purāṇas, see :—

[ 27 ]
Of the eighteen or nineteen Mahā-purāṇas, besides the other
Upa-purāṇas⁷⁹, some nine have special reference to architec-
ture and sculpture etc. Most of the Purāṇas are Vaiṣṇava and
as many as fourteen of them are devoted to the worship of Viṣṇu ;
but they deal with the images of all the three deities, Trimūrti,
forming the Triad.

1. The Agni-purāṇa has sixteen chapters on Vāstu and Śilpa
   —one of them on town-planning, two on residential buildings and
   thirteen on sculpture.
2. The Garuḍa-purāṇa has two chapters on architecture
   and two on sculpture.
3. The Nāradīya-purāṇa treats only the construction of
   temples, reservoirs, wells and tanks in its one chapter.
4. The Brahmāṇḍa-purāṇa, likewise, treats the construc-
   tion of temples and other buildings in its one chapter.
5. The Bhaviṣya-purāṇa has four chapters, three being
   devoted to sculpture and one on the architecture of temples.
6. The Matsya-purāṇa has eight comprehensive chapters
   dealing in great detail with architecture and sculpture, constituting
   M. Winternitz : A. History of Ind. Lit. Vol. I. Section II ; especially,
   pp. 517—586.
   About the Śilpa sections of the Purāṇas, see :—
   P. K. Acharya : Ind. Arch. I. General Survey. III. The Epics.
   V. The Age of Mānasāra ; and also A Dictionary of Hindu Archit.
   Appendix II. ; N. Law : Vārtā—the Hindu Economics, Ind. Antiq.,
   Vol. XLVII.
7. For full lists of the Purāṇas and the Upa-Purāṇas : see M. Monier-
   Williams : Indian Wisdom (1893, Lond), chapt. XV.—ff. Purāṇas ; and see,
   especially—about eighteen Purāṇas, pp. 513-14 and about eighteen Upa-
   Purāṇas, p. 521. Also, M. Winternitz : Op. cit., p. 532-33.
   “But the Matsya-Purāṇa mentions only four Upa-Purāṇas. The
   Brahma-vaivarta-P., without enumerating them, says that eighteen Upa-P.
   exist. The Kūrma-P. enumerates them.”

[ 28 ]
the Vāstu-prakaraṇa i. e., the section on Architecture. In
one of these chapters, accounts are given of the eighteen Vāstu-
śāstropadeśakas, ancient masters of architecture. One chapter
is devoted to columns, two to buildings, one to building-materials.
Three chapters are exclusively devoted to sculpture—one being on
Tālamāna, iconometry and two others on the Phallus.
7. The Liṅga-purāṇa has a single chapter on sacrificial
pits, temples and the installation of deities.
8. The Vāyu-purāṇa has a single chapter about building
temples on mountains.
9. The Skanda-purāṇa has three chapters on Vāstu and
Śilpa. One chapter describes how for his daughter's marriage
Himālaya had a pavillion constructed by Viśvakarman under the
instruction of his Purohita Gargācārya and how clever portraits or
life-like representations of all gods were made therein, and they
struck even the gods themselves with awe and wonder. Another
chapter describes the laying out by Viśvakarman himself, of a
large city Mahīnagara. From another chapter, we come to know
how a golden hall was made by Padmanidhi, at the command of
Indradyumna, how Viśvakarman made three chariots at the
command of Nārada and how their installation ceremony was
performed by this ṛṣi.
For informations regarding Vāstu, Śilpa and Citra —
the most important Paurāṇik sources are the Agni, the Matsya
and the Viṣṇudharmottaram.
"The Matsya or Matsya-Purāṇa⁸⁰ . . . is one of the older
works of the Purāṇa literature, or at least one of those which have
preserved most of the ancient text, and do fair justice to the
definition of a 'Purāṇa.' It commences with the story of the
great flood out of which Viṣṇu, in the form of a fish (Matsya)
saves only Manu. While the ship in which Manu is sailing
80. The Matsya-Purāṇa is published in Ānandāśram Sanskrit Series
No. 54 and transl. into Engl., in SBH. (Pāṇini office, Allahabad) Vol. 17.
See M. Winternitz : A Hist. of Ind. Lit. Vol. I, pp. 575-76.

[ 29 ]
along is being drawn through the flood by the fish, there takes
place between him and Viṣṇu, incarnated as a fish, a conversa-
tion which forms the substance of the Purāṇa. Creation is treated
in detail, then follow the genealogies...Neither are the usual
geographical, astronomical and chronological sections absent, and
according to V. A. Smith....the lists of kings in this Purāṇa are
particularly reliable for the Andhra dynasty. It has very much
in common with the Mahābhārata and the Harivaṁśa :...and there
is often literal agreement. There are, however, very numerous later
additions and interpolations. For instance...,ceremonies at the
building of a house (chapts. 252—257), the erection and dedication
of statues of deities, temples and palaces (chapts. 258—270)...etc.
“As far as the religious content is concerned, the Matsya-
Purāṇa might be called Śivaite with just as much reason as it is
classed as Viṣṇuite. Religious festivals of the Vaiṣṇavas are
described side by side with those of the Śaivas, and both Viṣṇu
and Śiva legends are related. In chapter 13 Devi (“the Goddess”,
Śiva’s wife Gauri) enumerates to Dakṣa the one hundred and
eight names by which she wishes to be glorified. It is obvious
that both sects used the work as a sacred book.”⁸¹

81. “Regarding the Matsya-Purāṇa, Professor H. H. Wilson writes :—
    ‘The Matsya-Purāṇa, it will be seen,...from...its contents, is a miscella-
    neous compilation, but including, in its contents, the elements of a genuine
    Purāṇa. At the same time, it is of too mixed a character to be considered
    as a genuine work of the Paurāṇik class ; and, upon examining it carefully,
    it may be suspected that it is indebted to various works, not only for its
    matter, but for its words.
    Although a Śaiva work, it is not exclusively so and it has not such
    sectarian absurdities as the Kūrma and Liṅga. It is a composition of con-
    siderable interest ; but, if it has extracted its materials from the Padma,—
    which it also quotes on one occasion, the specification of the Upapurāṇas—
    it is subsequent to that work and not very ancient.’
    But modern scholars consider this Purāṇa as one of the oldest, in fact
    the Padma-Purāṇa seems to have borrowed from the Matsya and not the
    reverse. (Vide Vincent Smith's Early History of India. 3rd Ed., pp. 11,
    21—23).

[ 30 ]
"The Āgneya or Agni-purāṇa,⁸² is so called because it is
supposed to have been communicated to Vasiṣṭha by Agni, It
describes the incarnations (Avatāras) of Viṣṇu, among them also
those as Rāma and Kṛṣṇa, where it confessedly follows the
Rāmāyaṇa, Mahābhārata and Harivaṁśa. Although it commences
with Viṣṇu,...it is yet essentially a Śivaite work and deals in
detail with the mystic cult of the Liṅga and of Durgā. It also
mentions Tāntric rites, gives instructions for the production of
images of gods and their consecration and refers to the cult of
Gaṇeśa (chapt. 71) and the sun-cult (chapt. 73)...But the cosmo-
logical, geneological and geographical sections peculiar to the
Purāṇas are not missing. The especially distinctive feature of
this Purāṇa is, however, its encyclopædic characters. It actually
deals with anything and everything. We find sections on Geography,
Astronomy and Astrology,...on omina and potenta, house building
and other occupations of daily life...To which age this remarkable
encyclopædia or its separate parts belong, it is impossible to say."
The Matsya-Purāṇa enumerates the names of eighteen
ancient teachers of architecture, as quoted before. The passages
have been interpreted as below.⁸³
"The Ṛṣis asked :—
'Sūta ! be gracious enough to tell us how royal palaces and
other houses are constructed. Also explain to us what is Vāstu-
Deva—1.'
Sūta replied :—(1) Bhṛgu, (2) Atri, (3) Vasiṣṭha, (4) Viśva-
karmā, (5) Maya, (6) Nārada, (7) Nagnajit, (8) Viśālākṣa,
(9) Indra, (10) Brahmā, (11) Svāmikārtika, (12) Nandiśvara,
(13) Śaunaka, (14) Garga, (15) Śrī Kṛṣṇa, (16) Aniruddha,
82. M. Winternitz : Op. cit., p. 566.
Agni-P. ed. in Bibliotheca Indica (1873—79) and Ānandāśram Skt.
Series, No. 41 ; Transl. by M. N. Dutt (Cal., 1901).
83. The Matsya-purāṇam. Transl. by A Taluqdar of Oudh. (The
Sacred Books of the Hindus. Ed. by Major B. D. Basu. I. M. S. Vol.
XVII.) Appendix X, by Sris Chandra Vidyarnava, p. cvi.