वेदों की प्राचीनता एवं काल-निर्णय / ओरायन (लोकमान्य बाल गंगाधर तिलक - खगोलीय वैदिक शोध)

xii CONTENTS.
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CHAPTER II.
THE GLACIAL PERIOD.
Geological climate—Uniform and gentle in early ages—Due to dif-
ferent distribution of land and water—Climatic changes in the
Quarternary era—The Glacial epoch— Its existence undoubtedly
proved—Extent of glaciation—At least two Glacial periods —
Accompanied by elevation and depression of land — Mild and
genial inter-glacial climate even in the Arctic regions—Various
theories regarding the cause of the Ice Age stated—Lyell's theory
of geographical changes —Showing long duration of the Glacial
period—Croll's theory—Effect of the precession of the equinoxes
on the duration and intensity of seasons —The cycle of 21,000
years—The effect enhanced by the eccentricity of the earth's orbit
—Maximum difference of 33 days between the duration of sum-
mer and winter—Sir Robert Ball's calculations regarding the
average heat received by each hemisphere in summer and winter
—Short and warm summers and long and cold winters, giving
rise to a Glacial epoch—Dr. Croll's extraordinary estimate re-
garding the duration of the glacial epoch—Based on the maxi-
mum value of the eccentricity of the earth's orbit—Questioned by
astronomers and geologists —Sir Robert Ball's and Newcomb's
view —Croll's estimates inconsistent with geological evidence—
Opinions of Prof. Geikie and Mr. Hudleston—Long duration of the
Glacial period—Summary of results. . . . . 20
CHAPTER III.
THE ARCTIC REGIONS.
Existence of a Circum-polar continent in early times—Probable also
in the Inter-glacial period—Milder climate at the time—Neces-
sity of examining Vedic Myths—Difference between Polar and
circumpolar characteristics—The precession of the equinoxes used
as chronometer in Vedic chronology—Characteristics of the North
Pole—The horizontal motion of the celestial hemisphere—Spin-
ning round of the stars without rising or setting—The Sun rising
in the South—A day and a night of six months each—Aurora
Borealis —Continuous fortnightly moonlight, and long morning

CONTENTS xiii
PAGE
and evening twilights—Dawn lasting from 45 to 60 days—The
Polar year—The darkness of the Polar night reduced only to two,
or two and a half, months—Dr. Warren's description of the Polar
dawn with its revolving splendours—Characteristics of regions to
the South of the North Pole—Stars moving obliquely and a few
rising and setting as in the tropical zone—The southerly direction
of the Sun—A long day and a long night, but of less than six
months' duration—Supplemented by the alterations of ordinary
days and nights for some time during the year—Long dawn, but
of shorter duration than at the Pole—Comparison with the features
of the year in the tropics—Summary of Polar and Circum-polar
characteristics. . . . . . 39
CHAPTER IV.
The Night of the Gods.
Vedic sacrifices, regulated by the luni-solar calendar—A year of six
seasons and twelve months, with an intercalary month in the Tait-
tirîya Saṁhitâ—The same in the Ṛig-Veda—Present result of
the Vedic mythology—All presuppose a home in the temperate or
the tropical zone—But further research still necessary—The spe-
cial character of the Ṛig-Veda explained—Polar tests found in
the Ṛig-Veda—Indra supporting the heavens with a pole, and
moving them like a wheel—A day and a night of six months, in
the form of the half-yearly day and night of the Gods—Found in
the Sûrya Siddhânta and older astronomical Saṁhitâs—Bhâskarâ-
chârya's error explained—Gods' day and night mentioned by
Manu and referred to by Yâska—The description of Meru or the
North Pole in the Mahâbhârata—In the Taittirîya Âraṇyaka
—The passage in the Taittirîya Brâhmaṇa about the year-long day
of the Gods—Improbability of explaining it except as founded
on the observation of nature—Parallel passage in the Vendîdâd—
Its Polar character clearly established by the context—The Vara
of Yima in the Airyana Vaejô—The sun rising and setting there
only once a year—The Devayâna and the Pitṛiyâna in the Ṛig-
Veda—Probably represent the oldest division of the year, like
the day and the night of the Gods—The path of Mazda in the
Parsi scriptures—Death during Pitṛiyâna regarded inauspicious
—Bâdarâyaṇa's view—Probable explanation suggested—Death
during winter or Pitṛiyâna in the Parsi scriptures—Probably in-

xiv CONTENTS.
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dicates a period of total darkness—Similar Greek traditions
—Norse Twilight of the Gods —The idea of half-yearly day and
night of the Gods thus proved to be not only Indo-Iranian, but
Indo-Germanic —A sure indication of an original Polar home. - 61
CHAPTER V.
THE VEDIC DAWNS.
Dawn-hymns the most beautiful in the Ṛig-Veda—The Deity fully
described, unobscured by personification—First hints about the
long duration of dawn —Recitation of a thousand verses, or even
the whole Ṛig-Veda, while the dawn lasts—Three or five-fold
divison of the dawn—Both imply a long dawn—The same in-
ferred from the two words Ushas and Vyushṭi—Three Ṛig-Vedic
passages about long dawns, hitherto misunderstood, discussed—
Long interval of several days between the first appearance of
light and sunrise—Expressly mentioned in the Ṛig-Veda, VII, 76,
3—Sâyaṇa's explanation artificial and unsatisfactory —Existence
of many dawns before sunrise—Reason why dawn is addressed in
the plural in the Ṛig-Veda—The plural address not honorific—
Nor denotes dawns of consecutive days—Proves a team of conti-
nuous dawns—The last view confirmed by the Taittirîya Saṁ-
hitâ, IV, 3, 11--Dawns as 30 sisters—Direct authority from the
Taittirîya Brâhmaṇa for holding that they were continuous or un-
separated—Sâyaṇa's explanation of 30 dawns examined—Thirty
dawns described as thirty steps of a single dawn—Rotatory
motion of the dawn, like a wheel, directly mentioned in the
Ṛig-Veda—Their reaching the same appointed place day by day
—All indicate a team of thirty closely-gathered dawns—Results
summed up—Establish the Polar character of the Vedic dawns
—Possible variation in the duration of the Vedic dawn—The
legend of Indra shattering the Dawn's car explained—Direct
passages showing that the dawns so described were the events
of a former age—The Vedic Dawns Polar in character. . 80
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER V.
The Thirty Dawns. . . . . . 113

CONTENTS. xv
PAGE
CHAPTER VI.
LONG DAY AND LONG NIGHT.
Independent evidence about the long night—Vṛitra living in long
darkness—Expressions denoting long darkness or long night—
Anxiety to reach the end of darkness—Prayers to reach safely
the other end of night—A night, the other boundary of which
was not known according to the Atharva Veda—The Taittirīya
Saṁhitâ explains that these prayers were due to fears entertained
by the ancient priests that the night would not dawn—Not caused
by long winter nights as supposed by Sâyaṇa—Description of
days and nights in the Ṛig-Veda—Divided into two typical pairs
—One described as bright, dark and virûpe—Virûpe means 'of
varying lengths' and not 'of various colours'—Second pair,
Ahanî, different from the first—Durations of days and nights on
the globe examined—Ahanî can only be a couple of the long Arc-
tic day and night—Described as forming the right and left, or the
opposite sides of the Year in the Taittirīya Âraṇyaka—The sun is
described in the Ṛig-Veda as unyoking his car in the midst of the
sky—And thereby retaliating Dâsa's mischief—Represents the
long day and the long night—Summary of evidence regarding
long day and long night—Uṣhas and Sûrya as Dakṣhiṇâ and
Dakshiṇa's son—Probably imply the southerly course of both. . 123
CHAPTER VII.
MONTHS AND SEASONS.
Evidence of rejected calendar generally preserved in sacrificial rites by
conservative priests—Varying number of the months of sunshine
in the Arctic region—Its effect on sacrificial sessions considered
—Seven-fold character of the sun in the Vedas—The legend of
Aditi—She presents her seven sons to the gods and casts away
the eighth—Various explanations of the legend in the Brâhmaṇas
and the Taittirīya Âraṇyaka—Twelve suns understood to be the
twelve month-gods in later literature—By analogy seven suns
must have once indicated seven months of sunshine—Different
suns were believed to be necessary to produce different seasons—
Aditi's legend belongs to the former age, or pûrvyam yugam

xvi CONTENTS.
PAGE.
—Evidence from sacrificial literature —The families of sacrificers
in primeval times —Called ' our ancient fathers ' in the Ṛig-Veda
—Atharvan and Aṅgiras traced to Indo-European period —Nava-
gvas and Dashagvas, the principal species of the Aṅgirases—Help-
ed. Indra in his fight with Vala —They finished their sacrificial
session in ten months —The sun dwelling in darkness —Ten
months' sacrifices indicate only ten months of sunshine, followed
by the long night —Etymology of Navagva and Dashagva —Ac-
cording to Sâyaṇa the words denote persons sacrificing for nine or
ten months —Prof. Lignana's explanation improbable —The ad-
jective Virûpas applied to the Aṅgirases—Indicates other varieties
of these sacrificers —Saptagu, or seven Hotṛis or Vipras—Legend
of Dîrghatamas —As narrated in the Mahâbhârata—A protege of
Ashvins in the Ṛig-Veda—Growing old in the tenth yuga —Mean-
ing of.yuga discussed—Mânushâ yugâ means ' human ages,' and
not always ' human tribes ' in the Ṛig-Veda —Two passages in
proof thereof—Interpretations of Western scholars examined and
rejected--Mânushâ yugâ denoted months after the long dawn and
before the long night—Dîrghatamas represents the sun setting in
the tenth month —Mânushâ yugâ and continuous nights—The
five seasons in ancient times— A Ṛig-Veda passage bearing on it
discussed —The year of five seasons described as residing in
waters —Indicates darkness of the long night —Not made up by
combining any two consecutive seasons out of six —The explana-
tion in the Brâhmaṇas improbable—Summary. . . 148
CHAPTER VIII.
THE COWS' WALK.
The Pravargya ceremony—Symbolises the revival of the yearly sacri-
fice —Milk representing seed heated in Gharma or Mahâvîra —
Mantras used on the occasion of pouring milk into it —The two
creating the five, and the ten of Vivasvat—Indicate the death of
the year after five seasons or ten months—The tradition about the
sun falling beyond the sky —Annual Sattras —Their type, the
Gavâm-ayanam or the Cows' Walk—Lasted for 10 or 12 months
according to the Aitareya Brâhmaṇa —Two passages from the
Taittirîya Saṁhitâ describing the Gavâm-ayanam —Mention 10
months' duration of the Sattra, but give no reason except that it

CONTENTS. xvii
PAGE
was an ancient practice—Plainly indicates an ancient sacrificial
year of ten months—Comparison with the old Roman year of ten
months or 304 days—How the rest of 360 days were disposed of
by the Romans not yet known—They represented a long period of
darkness according to the legend of the Dashagvas—Thus lead-
ing to the Arctic theory —Prof. Max Muller on the threefold
nature of cows in the Vedas —Cows as animals, rain and dawns
or days in the Ṛig-Veda—Ten months' Cows' walk thus means
the ten months' duration of ordinary days and nights —350 oxen
of Hêlios—Implies a night of ten days—The stealing of Apollon's
oxen by Hermes—Cows stolen by Vṛitra in the Vedas—Represent
the stealing of day-cows thereby causing the long night—Further
sacrificial evidence from the Vedas—Classification of the Soma-
sacrifices—Difference between Ekâha and Ahîna—A hundred
nightly sacrifices—Annual Sattras like the Gavâm-ayanam—Mo-
del out-line or scheme of ceremonies therein—Other modifica-
tions of the same—All at present based upon a civil year—But
lasted for ten months in ancient times—Night-sacrifices now in-
cluded amongst day-sacrifices—The reason why the former ex-
tend only over 100 nights is yet unexplained—Appropriately ac-
counted for on the Arctic theory—Soma juice extracted at night
in the Ati-râtra, or the trans-nocturnal sacrifice even now—The
analogy applied to other night-sacrifices—Râtri Sattras were the
sacrifices of the long night in ancient times—Their object—Soma
libations exclusively offered to Indra to help him in his fight
against Vala—Shata-râtra represented the maximum duration of
the long night—Corroborated by Aditi's legend of seven months'
sunshine—Explains why Indra was called Shata-kratu in the Pu-
râṇas—The epithet misunderstood by Western scholars—Similar-
ity between Soma and Ashvamedha sacrifices— The epithet
Shata-kratu, unlike other epithets, never paraphrased in the Ve-
das—Implies that it was peculiar or proper to Indra—Dr. Haug's
view that kratu, means sacrifice in the Vedas—Hundred forts or
puraḥ (cities) of Vṛitra—Explained as hundred seats of darkness
or nights—Legend of Tishtrya's fight with Apaosha in the Avesta
—Only a reproduction of Indra's fight with Vṛitra—Tishtrya's
fight described as lasting from one to a hundred nights in the
Avesta—Forms an independent corroboration of hundred nightly
Soma sacrifices — The phrase sato-karahe found in the Avesta
—The meaning and nature of Ati-râtra discussed—Means a trans-
nocturnal Soma sacrifice at either end of the long night—Produc-
tion of the cycle of day and night therefrom—Hence a fitting in-

xviii . CONTENTS. . PAG
troduction to the annual Sattras—Marked the close of the long
night and the beginning of the period of sunshine—Sattra, Ati-
rātra, night-sacrifices and Ati-rātra again thus formed the yearly
round of sacrifices in ancient times—Clearly indicate the existence
of a long darkness of 100 nights in the ancient year—Ancient
sacrificial system thus corresponded with the ancient year—Adap-
tation of both to the new home effected by the Brâhmaṇas, like
Numa's reform in the old Roman Calendar—The importance of
the results of sacrificial evidence. . . . . 188
CHAPTER IX.
VEDIC MYTHS—THE CAPTIVE WATERS.
Direct evidence for the Arctic theory summed up—Different nature of
the Mythological evidence—Schools of Mythological interpreta-
tion—The naturalistic or the Nairukta school—Its theories—The
Dawn theory and the myths explained by it—The Storm theory,
Indra and Vṛitra—The Vernal theory, the Ashvins' exploits—Vṛi-
tra's legend usually explained by the Storm theory—Simultaneous
effects of Indra's conquest over Vṛitra—The release of waters, the
release of cows, the recovery of the dawn and the production of
the sun—Vedic authorities in support of their simultaneous char-
acter—Passages relating to the place and time of the conflict
—The simultaneous nature left unexplained by the Dawn or the
Storm theory—Battle not fought in the atmosphere above, as im-
plied by the Storm theory—Nor in the rainy season—Misinter-
pretation of words like parvata, giri, adri, &c.—The Storm theory
inadequate in every respect—New explanation necessary—The
real nature of waters explained—They are aerial or celestial
waters, and not the waters of rain—Vedic bards knew of a region
'below the three earths'—The contrary view of Wallis refuted
—The real meaning of rajas, Nir-riti, ardhau and samudram ex-
plained—Cosmic circulation of aerial waters—Nether world, the
home of aerial waters—Avestic passages describing the circula-
tion of waters cited and explained—Sarasvatî and Ardvi Sûra
Anâhita are celestial rivers—The source of all plants and rain
—The real nature of Vṛitra's fight—Simultaneous release of
waters and light is intelligible, if both have the same source—Both
stopped by Vṛitra's encompassing the waters in the lower world—
The closing of the apertures in the mountains (parvatas) on the
horizon—The movement of the waters and the sun co-related

CONTENTS, . xix
PAGE
—Express passages from the Avesta to that effect—The sun stop-
ping for a long time in waters —Avestic passages in support there-
of—Its effect on the disposal of corpses —Darkness synchronous
with the cessation of the flow of waters in winter—Its long dura-
tion—Cosmic circulation of waters in other mythologies—Express
texts showing that the fight with Vṛitra was annual and fought
in winter—Inexplicable except on the Arctic theory —The exact
date of Indra's fight with Vṛitra preserved in the Ṛig-Veda—The
real meaning of chatvâriṁshyâm sharadi explained—Shambara
found on the 40th day of sharad —Denotes the commencement
of the long night —Vedic passages shewing sharad to be the last
season of sunshine—Paleographical evidence for reckoning time
by seasons —Similar reckoning in the Avesta — 100 autumnal
forts of Vṛitra and the killing of the watery demon with ice ex-
plained —The seven rivers released by Indra—Cannot be terres-
trial, nor the rivers of the Panjaub —The interpretation of West-
ern scholars examined and rejected—The connection between the
seven rivers and the seven suns pointed out —The origin of the
phrase Hapta-hindu in the Avesta—Probably a transference of
an old mythological name to a place in the new home —Vṛitra's
legend Arctic in origin —Captive waters represent the yearly
struggle between light and the darkness in the ancient Arctic
home. 233
CHAPTER X.
VEDIC MYTHS—THE MATUTINAL DEITIES.
Vernal theory and the legends of the Ashvins—The part played by the
Ashvins in the struggle for waters and light —Intelligible only on
the Arctic theory—Their exploits and legends—Saving or rejuve-
nating, rescuing from the ocean, or restoring the eye-sight or
light, to Chyavâna, Rebha, Bhujyu, Atri, Vandana &c.—All ex-
plained at present as referring to the rescue of the daily dawn or
the vernal restoration of the powers of the winter sun—But the
theory fails to explain references to blindness or darkness in se-
veral legends—Nor does it account for the duration of the distress
of the Ashvins' protégés —Nor for the character of the place of
distress from which the proteges were saved—Bottomless and
dark ocean really means the nether world—A bowl with bottom
up and mouth downwards indicates the inverted hemisphere of the

XX CONTENTS. PAGE
Hades—Legend of Ṛijrâshva—The slaughter of a hundred sheep
represents the conversion of a hundred days into so many nights
—The story of Saptavadhri or the seven-eunuch, praying for safe
delivery after ten months of gestation—Remains unexplained up
to the present—The interior of heaven and earth is conceived in
the Veda as the womb in which the sun moves when above the
horizon—Ten months' gestation thus represents the ten months
when the Sun is above the horizon—Prayer for safe delivery in-
dicates the perils of the long night—Riddle or paradox of a child
becoming invisible as soon as born—The story of the hidden Agni
refers to the same phenomenon—Probable origin of the Paurâṇic
story of Kumâra or Kârttikeya —Superiority of the Arctic over
the Vernal theory in explaining the legends of the Ashvins—
The legend of Indra's stealing Sûrya's wheel —The meaning of
dasha-prapitve discussed—Indicates darkness on the completion of
ten months—Viṣhṇu's three strides—Different opinions about their
nature quoted—Viṣhṇu's strides represent the yearly course of the
sun —and his third invisible step represents the nether world—
Viṣhṇu's opprobrious name, Shipiviṣhṭha—Represents the dark or
the diseased sun during the long Arctic night—The three
abodes of Savitṛi, Agni and the Ashvins compared to Vish-
ṇu's third step—The legend of Trita Âptya—Trita, or the
third, represents the third part of the year—The Indo-Germanic
origin of the legend—The Âpas—Their character and nature de-
scribed—Seven-fold and ten-fold division of things in the Vedic
literature—Various instances of seven-fold and ten-fold division
collected—This two-fold division probably due to the seven and
ten months' period of sunshine in the Arctic region—The Dâsha-
râjña fight—Represents struggle with the ten-fold division of
darkness—Bṛihaspati and his lost wife in the Ṛig-Veda—The ten
non-sacrificing kings and Râvaṇa compared—Mythical element in
the Râmâyaṇa probably derived from the Vedic mythology—Ha-
numân and Vṛiṣhâkapi—Was Râmayaṇa copied from Homer—
Both may have a common source—Conclusion. . . . 297
CHAPTER XI
THE AVESTIC EVIDENCE.
Nature of Avestic evidence stated—Different views of scholars re-
garding its character—Necessity of re-examining the subject—

CONTENTS. xxi
PAGE
An abstract of the first Fargard of the Vendidad—Sixteen lands
created by Ahura Mazda with their modern equivalents &c.—
Airyana Vaejo, the first created land represents the Paradise of the
Iranians—Different views regarding its position—Darmesteter,
Spiegel and others locate it in the east; Haug and Bunsen in the
far north—Darmesteter’s argument examined—Airyana Vaejo can-
not be determined from the position of Vanguhi—Identification
of Rangha with the Caspian Sea or the westernmost river doubt-
ful—Rangha is probably the same as Rasâ in the Ṛig-Veda, X, 75,
6—Unsoundness of Darmesteter’s reasoning—The position of the
Airyana Vaejo must be determined from its special characteristics
found in the Avesta—The passage where ten months’ winter is
said to be such a characteristic cited—Ten months’ winter first in-
troduced into the happy land by Angra Mainyu—Indicates that be-
fore the fiend’s invasion there must have been ten months’ summer
and two months winter in the land—Sudden change in the Polar
climate fully confirmed by latest geological researches—Two
months winter necessarily synchronous with long Arctic night
—The tradition about seven months summer and five months win-
ter also refers to the original climate in the Airyana Vaejo—Men-
tioned in the Bundahish—Not inconsistent with the tradition of
ten months summer recorded in the original passage—Both pos-
sible in the Arctic regions—Similar statements in the Ṛig-Veda
—Coincidence between seven months summer, the legend of Adi-
ti, and the date of Indra’s fight with Shambara, pointed out
—Summary of the second Fargard—Yima’s Vara in the Airyana
Vaejo—Annual sunrise and a year long-day therein—Shows that
the Airyana Vaejo must be located near the North Pole and not to
the east of Iran—The account too graphic to be imaginary or my-
thical—Represents the advent of the Glacial epoch in the land—It
is the oldest human testimony to the advent of the Ice-age, de-
stroying the Arctic home—Special importance of the Avestic evi-
dence pointed out—Fully corroborated by scientific evidence—Mi-
gration from Airyana Vaejo rendered necessary by glaciation
—Sixteen lands in the first Fargard therefore represent successive
stages of migration to Central Asia—Establishes the historical
character of the first Fargard—The legend of deluge in the Shata-
patha Brâhmaṇa—Probably refers to the same event as the Aves-
tic legends—Other Vedic passages indicating the northern origin
of Indian Aryas—Conclusion to be drawn from the Vedic and
Avestic evidence combined. . . . . . 335

xxii CONTENTS. PAGE
CHAPTER XII.
COMPARATIVE MYTHOLOGY.
The value of Comparative Mythology as corroborative evidence—Its
use in the present case—The ancient calendars of the European
Aryan races—The plurality of Dawns in the Lettish, the Greek
and the Celtic mythology—The ancient Roman year of ten
months and Numa's reform thereof—Plutarch's view—Improba-
bility of Lignana's theory pointed out—The ancient Celtic year
—Closed with the last day of October and marked the commence-
ment of winter and darkness—The winter feast celebrated on
the day—The mid-summer feast of Lugnassad on the first of
August—The commencement of summer on the first of May
—The date of the battle of Moytura—Similar duration of the old
Norse year—Comparison with the ancient Greek calendar—All
indicate six months' light and six months' darkness—Corrobora-
tion derived from comparative philology—Two divisions of the
year in primeval times—The Maid of Nine Forms in the Celtic
mythology—The Nine paces of Thor in the Norse legend—Com-
pared with the Vedic Navagvas and Vifra Navaza in the Avesta
—Balder's home in the heavens—Indicates the long Arctic day
—The Slavonic story of Ivan and his two brothers—Continuous
night in Ivan's home—Comparison with the Vedic legend of Trita
—The Slavonic winter demon—The story of Dawn and Gloaming
in the Finnish mythology—Indicates a long day of four weeks
—Celtic and Teutonic legends representing the Sun-god's annual
struggle with darkness—Baldur and Hodur, Cuchulainn and Fo-
mori—Temporary sickness and indisposition of gods and heroes
—Prof. Rhys' views thereon—The affliction indicates winter
darkness—Celtic and Teutonic myths indicating long continuous
day and night—All point to a primeval home in the Arctic region
—Recent ethnological researches in favour of European home re-
ferred to—Indicate northern Germany or Scandinavia—The ne-
cessity of going still farther North—Prof. Rhys suggests Finland
or White Sea—Not inconsistent with the theory which seeks to
make the North Pole the home of the whole human race—Prof.
Rhys' method and conclusion—Primeval Arctic home established
alike by the traditions of the eastern and western Aryas—Its rela-
tion with the general theory about the cradle of the human race .
at the North Pole explained. . : . . . . 391

CONTENTS. xxiii
PAGE
CHAPTER XIII.
THE BEARING OF OUR RESULTS ON THE HISTORY OF
PRIMITIVE ARYAN CULTURE AND RELIGION.
Proofs of the theory of the Arctic home summed up—They clearly
indicate a Polar home, but the exact spot in the Arctic regions,
that is, north of Europe or Asia, still undeterminable —An Arctic
home possible only in inter-Glacial times according to geology
—Ancient Vedic chronology and calendar examined—The inter-
val between the commencement of the Post-Glacial era and the
Orion period cannot, according to it, be so great as 8,000 years
—Supported by the moderate estimate of the American geologists
—Purânic chronology of yugas, manvantaras and kalpas—Rangâ-
chârya's and Aiyer's views thereon—Later Purânic system evolved
out of an original cycle of four yugas of 10,000 years, since
the last deluge —The theory of 'divine years' unknown to Manu
and Vyâsa—Adopted by later writers who could not believe that
they lived in the Krita age —The original tradition of 10,000
years since the last deluge fully in accord with Vedic chronology
—And also with the American estimate of 8,000 B. C. for the be-
ginning of the Post-Glacial period —All prove the existence of a
Polar Aryan home before 8,000 B. C. —Trustworthiness of the
ancient traditions and the method of preserving them—The theory
of the Polar origin of the whole human race not inconsistent with
the theory of the Arctic Aryan home —Current views regarding
primitive Aryan culture and religion examined—Primitive Aryan
man and his civilisation cannot now be treated as post-Glacial
—Certain destruction of the primeval civilization and culture by
the Ice Age —Shortcomings or defects in the civilisation of the
Neolithic Aryan races in Europe must, therefore, be ascribed to a
post-diluvian relapse into barbarism—Life and calendar in the in-
ter-Glacial Arctic home—Devayâna and Pitriyâna and the deities
worshipped during the period —The ancient sacrifices of the
Aryan race—The degree of civilisation reached by the undivided
Aryans in their Arctic home—The results of Comparative Philo-
logy stated—The civilisation disclosed by them must be taken to
be the minimum or the lowest, that can be predicated of the un-
divided Aryans—The culture of the undivided Aryans higher than
the culture of the Stone or the Metal age—Use of metal coins
among them highly probable —Beginnings of the Aryan language

xxiv CONTENTS.
PAGE
or the differentiation of human races according to colour or lan-
guage still untraceable—The origin of Aryan man and religion
lost in geological antiquity—Theological views regarding the ori-
gin and character of the Vedas summarised—Differently supported
by writers on the different schools of philosophy—Patañjali's and
Vyâsa's view that the Vedas were lost in the last deluge and repro-
mulgated in substance, if not in form, at the beginning of the
new age—The four periods into which the Post-Glacial era may be
divided on astronomical grounds—Compared with the character-
istics of the four yugas given in the Aitareya Brâhmaṇa—Theolo-
gical and historical views regarding the origin &c., of the Vedas
stated in parallel columns and compared—Vedic texts, showing
that the subject matter of the hymns is ancient though the langu-
age may be new, cited—Vedic deities and their exploits all said
to be ancient—Improbability of Dr. Muir's suggested reconcilia-
tion—Vedas, or rather Vedic religion, shown to be inter-Glacial
in substance though post-Glacial in form—Concluding remarks. 414
GENERAL INDEX. . . . : . . . 467
INDEX OF VEDIC AND AVESTIC PASSAGES.

THE
ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
CHAPTER I.
PREHISTORIC TIMES.
The Historic Period—Preceded by myths and traditions—The
Science of Mythology—Fresh impulse given to it by Compara-
tive Philology—Unity of Aryan races and languages—The
system of interpreting myths, and the theory of Asiatic Home
—Recent discoveries in Geology and Archæology—Requiring
revision of old theories—The Vedas still partially unintelli-
gible—New key to their interpretation supplied by recent
discoveries—The Ages of Iron, Bronze and Stone—Represent
different stages of civilization in Prehistoric times—The Ages
not necessarily synchronous in different countries—Distinc-
tion between Neolithic and Palæolithic or new and old Stone
Age—The Geological eras and periods—Their correlation
with the three Ages of Iron, Bronze and Stone—Palæolithic
Age probably inter-glacial—Man in Quaternary and Tertiary
eras—Date of the Neolithic Age—5000 B. C. from lake-dwell-
ings—Peat-mosses of Denmark—Ages of Beach, Oak and Fir
—Date of the Palæolithic or the commencement of the Post-
Glacial period—Different estimates of European and American
geologists—Freshness of fossil deposits in Siberia—Favours
American estimate of 8000 years—Neolithic races—Dolicho-
cephalic and Brachy-cephalic—Modern European races des-
cended from them—Controversy as to which of these repre-
sent the Primitive Aryans in Europe—Different views of
German and French writers—Social condition of the Neoli-
thic races and the primitive Aryans—Dr. Schrader's view—
Neolithic Aryan race in Europe cannot be regarded as autoch-
thonous—Nor descended from the Palæolithic man—The
question of the original Aryan home still unsettled.
If we trace the history of any nation backwards into
the past, we come at last to a period of myths and tradi-
tions which eventually fade away into impenetrable darkness.

2 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
In some cases, as in that of Greece, the historic period goes back
to 1000 B. C., while in the case of Egypt the contemporaneous
records, recently unearthed from ancient tombs and monuments,
carry back its history upto about 5000 B. C. But in either case
the historic period, the oldest limit of which may be taken to be
5000 or 6000 B. C., is preceded by a period of myths and tra-
ditions; and as these were the only materials available for
the study of prehistoric man up to the middle of the
nineteenth century, various attempts were made to systematise
these myths, to explain them rationally and see if they shed
any light on the early history of man. But, as observed by Prof.
Max Muller, "it was felt by all unprejudiced scholars that none
of these systems of interpretation was in the least satis-
factory." "The first impulse to 'a new consideration of the
mythological problem" observes the same learned author "came
from the study of comparative philology." Through the dis-
covery of the ancient language and sacred books of India—a
discovery, which the Professor compares with the discovery of
the new world, and through the discovery of the intimate re-
lationship between Sanskrit and Zend on the one hand and the
languages of the principal races of Europe on the other, a com-
plete revolution took place in the views commonly entertained
of the ancient history of the world. 1 It was perceived that the
languages of the principal European nations—ancient and mo-
dern—bore a close resemblance to the languages spoken by
the Brahmans of India and the followers of Zoroaster; and
from this affinity of the Indo-Germanic languages it followed
inevitably that all these languages must be the off-shoots or
dialects of a single primitive tongue, and the assumption of
such a primitive language further implied the existence of a
primitive Aryan people. The study of Vedic literature and
classical Sanskrit by Western scholars thus gradually effected

1. See Lectures on the Science of Language, Vol. II, pp. 445-6.

PREHISTORIC TIMES. 3
a revolution in their ideas regarding the history and culture of man
in ancient times. Dr. Schrader in his work on the Prehistoric
Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples gives an exhaustive summary of
the conclusions arrived at by the methods of comparative
philology regarding the primitive culture of the Aryan people,
and those that desire to have further information on the subject
must refer to that interesting book. For our present purpose it is
sufficient to state that comparative mythologists and philologists
were in the sole possession of this field, until the researches of the
latter half of the nineteenth century placed within our reach new
materials for the study of man not only in prehistoric times but
in such remote ages that compared with them the prehistoric
period appeared to be quite recent.
The mythologists carried on their researches at a time when
man was believed to be post-glacial, and when the physical and
geographical surroundings of the ancient man were assumed not
to have been materially different from those of the present day.
All ancient myths were, therefore, interpreted on the assump-
tion that they were formed and developed in countries, the
climatic or other conditions of which varied very little, if at
all, from those by which we are now surrounded. Thus every
Vedic myth or legend was explained either on the Storm or
the Dawn theory, though in some cases it was felt that the
explanation was not at all satisfactory. Indra was only a Storm-
God and Vritra the demon of drought or darkness brought on
by the daily setting of the sun. This system of interpretation
was first put forward by the Indian Etymologists; and though
it has been improved upon by Western Vedic scholars, yet upto
now it has remained practically unchanged in character. It was
again believed that we must look for the original home of the
Aryan race somewhere in Central Asia, and that the Vedic hymns,
which were supposed to be composed after the separation of the

4 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
Indian Aryans from the common stock, contained the ideas
only of that branch of the Aryan race which lived in the
Temperate zone. The scientific researches of the latter half
of the nineteenth century have, however, given a rude shock
to these theories. From hundreds of stone and bronze imple-
ments found buried in the various places in Europe the archæo-
logists have now established the chronological sequence of the
Iron, the Bronze and the Stone age in times preceding the historic
period. But the most important event of the latter half of the
last century, so far as it concerns our subject, was the discovery
of the evidence proving the existence of the Glacial period at
the close of Quaternary era, and the high antiquity of man,
who was shown to have lived not only throughout the Quater-
nary but also in the Tertiary era, when the climatic conditions
of the globe were quite different from those in the present or
the Post-Glacial period. The remains of animals and men
found in the Neolithic or Palæolithic strata also threw new
light on the ancient races inhabiting the countries where these
remains were found; and it soon became evident that the time-
telescope set up by the mythologists must be adjusted to a wider
range, and the results previously arrived at by the study of myths
and legends must be checked in the light of the facts disclosed
by these scientific discoveries. The philologists had now to be
more cautious in formulating their views, and some of them soon
realised the force of the arguments advanced on the strength
of these scientific discoveries. The works of German scholars,
like Posche and Penka, freely challenged the Asiatic theory re-
garding the original home of the Aryan race, and it is now
generally recognised that we must give up that theory and seek
for the original home of the Aryans somewhere else in the
further north. Canon Taylor in his Origin of the Aryans has
summed up the work done during the last few years in this

PREHISTORIC TIMES. 5
direction. “It was” he says “mainly a destructive work,” and
concludes his book with the observation that “the whilom
tyranny of the Sanskritists is happily overpast, and it is seen that
hasty philological deductions require to be systematically checked
by the conclusions of prehistoric archæology, craniology, an-
thropology, geology and common sense.” Had the remark not
been used as a peroration at the end of the book, it would
certainly be open to the objection that it unnecessarily deprecates
the labours of the comparative mythologists and philologists.
In every department of human knowledge old conclusions have
always to be revised in the light of new discoveries, but for that
reason it would never be just to find fault with those whose
lot it was to work earlier in the same field with scanty and
insufficient materials.
But whilst the conclusions of the philologists and mytholo-
gists are thus being revised in the light of new scientific dis-
coveries, an equally important work yet remains to be done. It
has been stated above that the discovery of the Vedic literature
imparted a fresh impulse to the study of myths and legends.
But the Vedas themselves, which admittedly form the oldest
records of the Aryan race, are as yet imperfectly understood.
They had already grown unintelligible to a certain extent even
in the days of the Brâhmanas several centuries before Christ,
and had it not been for the labours of Indian Etymologists
and Grammarians, they would have remained a sealed book
upto the present time. The Western Scholars have indeed deve-
loped, to a certain extent, these Native methods of interpretation
with the aid of facts brought to light by comparative philo-
logy and mythology. But no etymological or philological analysis
can help us in thoroughly understanding a passage which contains
ideas and sentiments foreign or unfamiliar to us. This is one of the
principal difficulties of Vedic interpretation. The Storm or the Dawn

6 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
theory may help us in understanding some of the legends
in this ancient book. But there are passages, which, in spite
of their simple diction, are quite unintelligible on any of these
theories, and in such cases Native scholars, like Sâyana,
are either content with simply paraphrasing the words, or
have recourse to distortion of words and phrases in order to
make the passages yield a sense intelligible to them; while some
of the Western scholars are apt to regard such texts as corrupt
or imperfect. In either case, however, it is an undoubted fact
that some Vedic texts are yet unintelligible, and, therefore,
untranslatable. Prof. Max Muller was fully alive to these diffi-
culties. "A translation of the Rig-Veda," he observes in his
introduction to the translation of the Vedic hymns in the
Sacred Books of the East series, "is a task for the next century,"*
and the only duty of the present scholars is to "reduce the
untranslatable portion to a narrower and narrower limit," as has
been done by Yâska and other Native scholars. But if the
scientific discoveries of the last century have thrown a new light
on the history and culture of man in primitive times, we may
as well expect to find in them a new key to the interpretation
of the Vedic myths and passages, which admittedly preserve for
us the oldest beliefs of the Aryan race. If man existed before
the last Glacial period and witnessed the gigantic changes which
brought on the Ice Age, it is not unnatural to expect that a
reference, howsoever concealed and distant, to these events would
be found in the oldest traditionary beliefs and memories of
mankind. Dr. Warren in his interesting and highly suggestive
work the Paradise Found or the Cradle of the Human Race at the
North Pole has attempted to interpret ancient myths and legends
in the light of modern scientific discoveries; and has come to
the conclusion that the original home of the whole human race
must be sought for in regions near the North Pole. My object

• See S. B. E. Series, Vol. XXXII, p. xi.

PREHISTORIC TIMES. 7.
is not so comprehensive. I intend to confine myself only to
the Vedic literature and show that if we read some of the pas-
sages in the Vedas, which have hitherto been considered
incomprehensible, in the light of the new scientific discoveries,
we are forced to the conclusion that the home of the ancestors
of the Vedic people was somewhere near the North Pole before
the last Glacial epoch. The task is not an easy one, consider-
ing the fact that the Vedic passages, on which I rely, had to
be, and have been, hitherto either ignored or explained away
somehow, or misinterpreted one way or another by Native and
European scholars alike. But I hope to show that these inter-
pretations, though they have been provisionally accepted, are
not satisfactory, and that new discoveries in archæology and
geology provide us with a better key for the interpretation of
these passages. Thus if some of the conclusions of the my-
thologist and the philologist are overthrown by these discoveries,
they have rendered a still greater service by furnishing us with
a better key for the interpretation of the most ancient Aryan
legends, and the results obtained by using the new key cannot,
in their turn, fail to throw further light on the primitive history
of the Aryan race, and thus supplement or modify the conclusion
now arrived at by the archæologist and the geologist.
But before proceeding to discuss the Vedic texts which point
out to a Polar home, it is necessary to briefly state the results
of recent discoveries in archæology, geology and palæontology.
My summary must necessarily be very short, for I propose
to note down only such facts as will establish the proba-
bility of my theory from the geological and palæontological
point of view; and for this purpose I have freely drawn
upon the works of such well-known writers as Lyell, Geikie,
Evans, Lubbock, Croll, Taylor and others. I have also utilised
the excellent popular summary of the latest results of these
researches in Samuel Laing's Human Origins and other