प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 87
heavy showers, frost, dust-storms etc. were also regarded
as sufficient causes to suspend studies. Holidays for
these causes seem to go back to hoary antiquity, when
students and teachers lived in humble cottages and were
engaged in agricultural pursuits. It must be further
remembered that the teaching and learning of the Vedic
hymns in the manner in which it is done traditionally
was physically impossible when a storm or lightning was
thundering abroad. In later times when teachers were
well-to-do men living in towns and villages and not
directly concerned with active agricultural pursuits, it is
doubtful if studies were suspended when there was a
dust-storm or frost. When the howling of jackals, crying
of wolfs, screeching of owls, braying of donkeys or
barking of dogs was heard, teaching was temporarily
stopped, partly, on account of superstitious beliefs
and partly due to the notion that the Vedic study was so
sacred an affair that it could be prosecuted only under
ideally pure circumstances. It was apprehended that gods
would become angry if the sanctity of the Vedas was
defiled by their being studied on such occasions.¹
Curtailment of Holidays: In course of time most
of the holidays mentioned in the last paragraph were
abolished. Curriculum was getting heavier and some
reasons had to be found for departing from the old
tradition. Some authorities, therefore, started the theory
that prohibition of studies under abnormal weather condi-
tion referred only to loud recitations; silent reading was
1 Cf. छिद्राण्याहुर्द्विजातीनामनध्यायान्मनीषिणः ।'
छिद्रेभ्यः स्रवति ब्रह्म ब्राह्मणेन यदर्जितम् ॥
आयुः प्रजां पशून्मेधां कृन्तामि सुकृतं च यत् ।
अनध्यायेष्वभ्यसतः ब्रह्म व्याहरतस्तथा ॥
Quoted by Aparārka on Yāj. I, 142-151.

88 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
not intended to be interdicted.¹ Others held that non-
Vedic works could be studied on the official holi-
days.² It would appear that in later times discretion
was given to different institutions as to what holidays
should be permitted by them to their students. Holidays
allowed to the youngsters were to be more numerous than
those to be allowed to advanced students.³ This was
certainly a very sound educational principle. In the case
of serious students, apart from the four monthly holidays,
studies seem to have been suspended since early times
only when they themselves or the place they were study-
ing was impure.⁴
Organisation of Courses: The modern reader will
be surprised to learn that in ancient India there were no
central bodies like the senates or boards of studies to
prescribe a clear cut course of a definite duration in
different subjects. This was a natural consequence of
the circumstance that education was mostly imparted by
private teachers: they did not belong to any institution, nor
were they controlled by any government. There was also
another reason for this phenomenon. Ancient Indians
regarded knowledge as unlimited and no period that one
could spend for its acquisition was regarded as adequate
for the purpose.⁵ The duration and contents of the
1 B Dh.S, I, 11, 40:मनसा चानध्याये । A.D.S, I . 3. 11 24 .
2 Manu II. 105. ; cf. also, Kûrmapurāna;
नानध्यायोस्ति चांगेषु नेतिहासपुराणयोः ।
न धर्मशास्त्रेष्वन्येषु पर्वेण्येतानि वर्जयेत् ॥
3 तत्र सर्वत्र प्राज्ञाप्राज्ञाध्येतृविषयेण गुरुलघुकालानां व्यवस्था ज्ञेया ।
V. M. S., p. 536.
4 T. A., II, 15 ; Manu, IV. 127.
5 There is an interesting parable in this connection in Tai. Br.,
III. 10. 11. 3 A Brahmana named Bhāradvāja spent three
P. T. O.

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 89
course were therefore largely determined by the will,
capacity and convenience of the student. Some students
who wanted to get an all-round mastery used to read for
as many as 25 or 30 years. Others who were home sick
or were content with a superficial knowledge, used to
return home in six or even three years. Intelligent stu-
dents, who could master the course in a shorter time,
were allowed to return as soon as their studies were over.
Normal Duration of the Course: The course of
higher education usually began with Upanayana at about
the age of ten and extended over about 12 years. The tra-
dition is quite definite about the Vedic course extending
over that period. This period was necessary for the
study of one Veda along with its subsidiary branches.
The duration of the courses of non-Vedic studies like
philology, logic, philosophy, poetics, Dharmaśāstra, etc.
is not definitely known. The students of these subjects
had to study a few Vedic hymns, necessary for their
religious duties, and a good deal of grammar in order to
get the facility for understanding works in advanced
Sanskrit prescribed for their courses. The full grammar
course extended over ten years in the 7th century A. D.;
but the students of poetics, philosophy or sacred law
(Continued from the last page)
successive lives in attempting to master all the Vedas. On
learning that he proposed to spend his fourth life also for
the same purpose, Indra appeared before him, shewed him
three hillocks of corn, and taking a handful from each, told
him that the three Vedas were infinite and what he had
learnt of them in three lives bore the same proportion to
what remained to be mastered as his three handfuls bore to
the hills of corn lying in front.
Sanskrit literature is full of sayings to the effect that
knowledge is infinite and cannot be mastered in one's life:—
अनन्तपारं खलु शब्दशास्त्रं स्वल्पं तथायुर्विपुलाश्च विद्याः।

90 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
(Dharmaśāstra), may have finished their grammar course
in five or six years and devoted about ten years for
getting a mastery in the subject of their choice. A person
who wanted to be regarded as cultured and well educated
had thus to spend about 15 or 16 years for his education,
subsequent to the time of his Upanayana at about the age
of eight or nine.¹ Usually he could finish his education
and become an expert in one particular branch at about
the age of 24, which was regarded as the ideal age for
marriage. It is interesting to note that in medieval
Europe also, the complete course of Latin education
covered a period of about 15 years (Raymond, Principles,
p. 193).
Longer course for special experts : Those however
who wanted to become special experts² or get the mastery
of several Vedas or wanted to specialise in more than
one branch of knowledge had to devote a much longer
period for their studies. They had to spend another
10 or 12 years and their studentship continued to the
age of 35 or 40. Megasthenes³ and Colebrooke⁴ refer
to such students, when they both refer to scholars
prosecuting their studies even at the age of 37. Society
however did not approve of the devotion of so great a
part of life to the cause of studies, if the person
eventually intended to marry. One authority states that
a person ought to be married in the prime of his life;
to postpone marriage to the age of 35 or 40 would be a

1 I-tsing, pp. 170-77
2 Twenty years were required for mastering the Krishna
Yajurveda and the enormous number of sacrifices and rituals
connected with it. Education Commission Report, Madras Prov.
Committee, 1882, p. 6.
3 Fragment No. 41,
4 Nadia Gazetteer p, 182,

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 91
folly.¹ Specialisation had come into field early; it was
not necessary for a person to master several Vedas or
several branches of knowledge. It was feared that if
this was indiscriminately encouraged, some students
would be tempted to prolong their education indefinitely,
especially since society used to provide them with free
boarding and lodging.² The case of teachers and
professors was different; they had already become
earning and useful members of society. They were
expected to be life-long students and acquire efficiency in
several branches.
Life-long studenthood: Actuated by spiritual
motives, some persons in ancient India used to observe
life-long celibacy and devote their time entirely to
religion and education.³ They were known as Naisṭhika
Brahmachārins. Their primary motive was spiritual
salvation, but it was to be achieved not by penance or
meditation, but by the dedication of a life of chastity to
the cause of the sacred lore. Unmoved by praise or
reproach, they carried on their work, without mixing
much with the mundane world and its affairs. Their
sole concern was a thorough acquisition of knowledge.
1 Cf. कृष्णकेशो ह्यग्नीनादधीतेतिश्रुतेः । Bau. Dh. S., I, 2, 31.
Śabara thinks that only eunuchs can contemplate the
'postponement of marriage to the age of 48. Cf. अपुंस्त्वं
प्रच्छादयन्तश्चाष्टाचत्वारिंशद्वर्षाणि ब्रह्मचर्यं चरितवन्तः । On P.M., 1, 3,
2 Cf. विना कुटुंबभरणात्तपोविद्यार्थिनः सदा ।
द्वीपे निवासितव्यास्ते बद्धा दुर्गेऽदरेऽथवा ॥ Śukra, IV. 1, 105.
3 Some of the medieval writers, who did not know the real object
of Naishthika Brahmacharya, have recommended it to dumb,
deaf and impotent persons, who could not marry. पंग्वादीनामनंशत्वा-
दसामर्थ्याच्च शास्त्रतः।नियतं नैष्ठिकत्वं स्यात्कर्मस्वनधिकारतः ॥ V M S. p. 551.
Aparārka, Madana and Mādhava have however pointed out how
this view is wrong.

92 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
'Forgetting fatigue', says Yuan Chwang, 'they expatiate
in arts and sciences; seeking for wisdom..they count not
1000 li (roughly equal to 200 miles) as a long journey.
Though their family may be in affluent circumstances,
such men make up their minds to be like vagrants and
get their food by begging, as they go about. With them
there is honour in knowing the truth and there is no
disgrace in being destitute' (I. 160-1). Smṛitis require a
Naisṭhika Brahmachari to serve his teacher throughout his
life; in actual practice however they used to establish new
centres of education after some time. Famous teachers
like Kaṇva and Divākarasena (of the Harshacharit) were
such Naishṭhika Brahmachāris. This ideal of Naishṭhika
Brahmacharya, which is peculiar to India, enabled her
to make striking progress in learning and philosophy.
EDUCATIONAL FINANCE.
Introduction: We have seen already that the item
of students' fees was a minor one in the income of the
private teacher and did not figure at all in the budgets of
public colleges and universities. The question therefore
naturally arises as to how education was being financed
in ancient India. Society, which had frowned upon the
practice of charging regular fees as a mercenary and
unworthy procedure, used to succeed in getting ample
support for the cause of education by appealing to the
religious and charitable instincts of the public. Vidyādāna
or a gift in the cause of education was pronounced to be
the best of gifts, possessing a higher religious efficacy
than even the gift of land (bhūmidāna).¹ Religion had a

¹ सहस्रसंमिता धेनुरनडुवान्दशेभवः । दशानुडुत्समं यानं दशयानसमं हयः ॥
दशवाजिसमा कन्या भूमिदानं च तत्समम् । भूमिदानात्परं नास्ति विद्यादानं
ततोऽधिकम् । Bṛihaspati quoted in SCS., p. 145.

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 93
great hold over the public mind in ancient times and this
spiritual exaltation of Vidyādāna secured so wide and
ample a response to the cause of education, both from the
public and the government, that it used to become possible
to impart free education at least to all poor students,
wishing to derive its benefits.
Help by Society; the Quota of Ordinary Men:
There is ample evidence to show that society was always
anxious to help the cause of education in a variety of
ways. Even the poorest family was required to support
the cause of education by giving a morsel of food to the
poor and hungry student coming to beg food at the door
at midday; to turn away such a student was pronounced
to be the gravest of sins.¹ Men of ordinary means used
to support the cause of education in a variety of ways.
They used to offer presents only to learned Brahmanas
on the occasion of Śrāddha; these presents were fairly
numerous and frequent for the Śrāddha was performed
in ancient times once in a month and not once in a year,
as is the case now. On the occasion of religious feasts
as large a number of students and teachers as possible
was invited: the citizens of Taxila, for instance, were
particular to follow this practice (Jātaka No. 498). On
auspicious occasions like Upanayana and marriage,
families used to give donations in cash or kind to teachers
and educational institutions.²
The Quota of Richer Citizens: Rich persons
used to help the cause of education in more substantial
ways. They would often engage the services of a teacher
¹ स्त्रीणां प्रत्याचक्षाणां समाहितो ब्रह्मचारी इष्टं दत्तं हुतं प्रजां पशून्ब्रह्मवर्चस-
मन्नाद्यं वृङ्क्ते । Ap. Dh. S., I. 1, 3, 24-25 G. Br., 2. 5-7 has a
similar warning.
² The citizens of Salotgi, for instance, used to follow this
practice; see E. I., IV, p. 60.

94 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
for their children and permit the villagers also to send
their wards to study under him. Sometimes they used to
take the lion's share in meeting the expenses of the local
school. They used to offer substantial help to graduates
collecting subscription for paying honorarium to their
teachers. Very often they used to defray the expenses of
copying books with a view to present them to scholars or
schools. In an age in which there existed neither press
nor paper, gifts of books were very badly needed.¹ Very
rich persons sometimes used to found free feeding houses
for the poor in general and the students in particular ;²
sometimes they would construct college buildings either
as a matter of charity³ or in commemoration of some
departed relation.⁴ Others would often endow chairs⁵
1 These have been recommended by Purāṇas ; cf. शास्त्रे यस्माज्जगत्सर्वं
संश्रितं च शुभाशुभम् । तस्माच्छास्त्रं प्रयत्नेन दातव्यं शुभकर्मणा ॥ Quoted by
Aparārka on Yāj I. 212. Both Nālandā and Valabhī used to get
grants for books ; see Chap. VI.
2 These, for instance, existed at Kolagalli, Managoli, Nilgund, Nes-
rage, Bagewadi, Belgamve, Dambal, Gadag and Behati in
Karnatak and at Kharepatan in Konkan during 1000-1400 A. D.
See, I. M. P., Bellary No. 82 ; E. I., V. p. 22 ; Ibid, III, p. 208 ;
J. B. B. R. A, S., X, p. 256 ; I. A , VII, p. 307 ; Ibid, V, p. 49; Ibid,
X, p. 188 ; Ibid, I, p. 30 ; Ibid, IV, p. 274 ; E. I, IV, p. 355
respectively.
3 Nārāyaṇa, a Rāshtrakūṭa minister, had done this in 945 A. D for
the college at Salotgi ; E. I. IV. p. 180.
4 For instance a Brahmana landlord at Kudarkot had erected a
building for a Vedic school in memory of his son killed in war ;
E I., l. p. 180.
5 These were known as Adhyayanavrittis and Vedavrittis and their
holders were also required to recite and expound Vedas and
Purāṇas for the benefit of the public. At a single village named
Kuttalam in Trichinopoly district sixteen endowments were made
for this purpose within the short interval of 150 years during the
Vijayanagara rule ; see S. I. E. R., for 1917, nos. 481 and 487
of 1917.

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 95
or make grants of land to meet some recurring expenses.
This was a combination of Vidyādāna and Bhumidāna,
and was very popular.¹ Those who were extremely rich
would often found and endow schools and colleges.²
Sometimes village communities³ and trade guilds⁴ also
would organise and finance educational institutions from
their own resources.
The Example of the Punjab: That the tradition
to help the cause of education was deep-rooted in society
would become quite clear from what we know about the
state of the Punjab on the eve of the British conquest.
Dr. Leitner, its first Educational Commissioner, observes.
“Respect for learning has always been the redeeming
feature of the East. To this the Punjab formed no
exception. Torn by invasions and civil war, it ever
preserved and added to educational institutions. The
most unscrupulous chief, the avaricious money-lender
and even the free-booter vied with the small money-
lender in making peace with his consciene by founding
schools and rewarding the learned. There was not a
1 A local magnate had given a gift of 200 nivartanas of land to the
college at Salotgi; E. I. IV, p. 60. See also I. A., XII, p. 258 and
XIII, p. 94 for similar gifts given at Soratur and Dharwar.
2 Chāngadeva, for instance, a grandson of Bhāskarāchārya, the
famous astronomer, had founded a college at Pātan; see E. I., I.
p. 30; Perumal, a Hoysal minister, had founded a college at Metugi
in Karnatak in 1290 A. D. where Vedas, Śāstras, Canarese and
Marathi were taught; see E. C III, Tiru-Narspur, No. 27
3 The Sanskrit college at Ennayiram was endowed by the local
village community; S. I. E. R., 1918, p. 145; the village commu-
nity at Belur had made a grant of land for meeting part of the
expenses of a local institution; see I. A., XVIII, p. 273.
4 A guild at Dambaḷ in Dharwar district was maintaining a Sanskrit
college in the 12th century; I. A., VIII, p. 185.
5. A History of Indigenous Education in the Punjab, p. 1; Indian
Education Commission, 1882.

96 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
mosque, a temple or a Dharmashālā that had not a
school attached to it, to which the youths flocked chiefly
for religious education. There were few wealthy men
who did not entertain a Maulavi, a Pandit or a Guru to
teach their sons, and along with them, the sons of their
friends and dependents. There were hundreds of religious
men who gratuitously taught their coreligionists, and
sometimes all comers, for the sake of God. There was
not a single villager who did not take pride in devoting
a portion of his produce to a respected teacher." For
obvious reasons the reverence for education in other
parts of India in the ancient period could not have been
less sincere and deep than it was in the Punjab at the
advent of the British rule.
Government’s Contribution, Direct Form : Let
us now see how the governments used to help the cause
of education in ancient India. Governments usually
reflect the views of society and cannot much lag behind
it in helping the causes cherished by it. This happened
in ancient India also. There is no Smṛiti which does not
recognise patronage of education as one of the most
important duties of kings ;¹ and as a general rule, rulers
in ancient times used to vie with one another in dis-
charging it. This they did both directly and indirectly.
Sometimes they used to found or endow colleges, as was,
for instance, done by the Guptas at Nālandā. On auspi-
cious occasions like coronation they used to invite learned
1 See Manu, VII, 82 ; Yāj. I, 130 ; Sukra, I, 369 ; Arathasāstra, II, 1
and 20. Bhishma pointedly draws the attention of Dharma to this
duty ; see Mbh. XIII, chaps. 59 and 60.
Though extending patronage, kings were not to assume a patroni-
sing attitude to learned men. King Raghu treats Kautsa very
courteously ; Dushyanta leaves behind his army when approaching
the hermitage of Kaṇva.

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 97
Brahmanas and found a colony of theirs, endowing
villages to meet the expenses of the new settlers.
This was tantamount to founding a new college, for
these Brahmana colonies used to develop into famous
centres of education. Governments used also to grant
lands or pensions to most of the learned Brahmanas
that used to come to their courts. Liberality of kings
like Kanishka, Chandragupta II, Harsha and Bhoja
is well known to history and tradition¹. Scores of
copper-plate grants published so far show that kings
were generally in the habit of giving land grants
to learned and pious Brahmanas. These latter in
their turn used to offer free tuition and thus help the
cause of education. But for royal patronage poets and
authors like Kālidāsa, Bāṇa Bhavabhūti, Vākpati,
Rājaśekhara and Śrīharsha could not have done as
much literary work as they did. The tradition of
giving direct monetary help to learned Brahmanas
promoting the cause of education continued down to
Some of the kings, who had extended patronage to famous
scholars, may be mentioned here:—

1. Aśvaghosha and Charaka were the proteges of Kanishka.
   The Sātavāhanas of the Deccan were famous for their patronage of
   scholarship. Numerous are the stories still current of the liberality
   of Chandragupta Vikramāditya to men of letters. His successors
   Kumāragupta, Tathāgatagupta, Narasimhagupta and Budhagupta
   endowed a number of villages to Nālandā University. Emperor
   Harsha was not only a patron of letters, but himself a good poet and
   dramatist. Bhavabhūti and Vākapati belonged to the entourage of
   king Yaśovarman of Kanauj. King Mahendrapāla and Mahīpāla of the
   same city were the patrons of the famous dramatist Rājaśekhara.
   Kings Muñja, Sindhurāja and Bhoja of the Paramāra dynasty are
   subjects of numerous anecdotes illustrative of their love of learning.
   The last mentioned one was himself a great author. Vikramāditya VI
   of the Chālukya dynasty invited poet Bilhaṇa to his court from
   Kashmir and extended his patronage to Vijñāneśvara, whose
   Mitāksharā is still regarded as authoritative in law courts. Umāpati-
   deva, Dhoi, Govardhana and Jayadeva were living at the court of king
   Lakshmaṇasena of Bengal, Hemachandra at the court of king
   Kumārapāla of Gujarat and Śrīharsha, the author of Naishadha-
   charit, at the court of kings Vijayachandra and Jayachandra of Kanauj.
   7

98 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
the times of the Peshwas in the 19th century.
Bajirao II, the last of the Peshwas, used to spend
5,00,000 of rupees in giving charity to learned
Brahmanas. 'But' says Elphinstone, 'the Dakshiṇā
formed only a small portion of his largesses to
Brahmanas and the number of persons devoted to
Hindu learning and religion who were supported by
him exceeded what would be readily supposed'.¹
Government help in indirect Forms : Governments
used to help the cause of education in many indirect
ways also. They used to offer scholarships to students
to enable them to complete their education.² Often
they used to hold literary tournaments and offer rich
rewards to successful scholars.³ In making appoint-
ments they used to show preference to men of learning ;
it is well known that many of the officers of the
Guptas were good poets or students of politics.⁴ Of
course it was not possible for governments to absorb
all graduates in their service ; those who could not be
employed in administrative posts used to get some
monetary help to enable them to start their lives.⁵

1. Elphinstone's minute quoted at p. 5 of the Report of the
   Bombay Provincial Committee, Education Commission, 1882.
2. सर्वविद्याकलाभ्यासे शिक्षयेद्भृतिपोषितान् ।
   समाप्तविद्यं तं दृष्ट्वा तत्कार्ये तं नियोजयेत् ॥ Śukra, I. 368
   Some of the Taxila students were state scholars ; J. No, 522
3. Kings Janaka of Mithilā and Ajātaśatru of Benares are, for
   instance, known to have done this ; Br. Up. II. 1. 1 Vikramāditya
   and Harsha are also famous for inviting learned men for literary
   affrays.
4. Harisheṇa, the author of the Allahabad praśasti was
   holding the post of a judge; Śāba, a minister of Chandragupta, II,
   was a poet and an expert in Nītiśāstra. See Gupta Inscriptions, Nos.
   1 and 5.
5. This practice, for instance, prevailed at the court of Valabhi
   in the 7th century A. D. ; see I-tsing, p. 177-8

[IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 99
Failure to help liberally a student, collecting money
to pay his teacher's honorarium was regarded as the
greatest slur on a king's reputation.¹ Further indirect
help to the cause of education was given by the state
by exempting students and learned but poor
Brahmanas from taxation.² The treasure trove laws
were so framed as to help the cause of learning.³
The law of limitation was relaxed in favour of
the student engaged in prosecuting studies at a college
(Gurukula).⁴
Government Help without Government Control :
A recent Soviet writer on education has averred that
schools and colleges can never be free from political
control as long as the state exists. His statement
appears to be perfectly true when we cast a glance at
the educational organisations in modern times; for
all states are at present very anxious to control
educational institutions and curricula as soon as they
proceed to give government grants. In totalitarian
states, education has become a means of propaganda

1. Cf. Raghu's remark to Kautsa when he wanted to go away,
   unsuccessful in his mission to get Gurudakshiṇā :—
   गुर्वर्थमर्थी श्रुतपारदृश्वा रघोः सकाशादनवाप्य कामम् ।
   गतो वदान्यान्तरमित्ययं मे मा भूतपरीवादनवावतारः ॥ V. 24
2. Cf. अकरः श्रोत्रियः ।.......ये च विद्यार्थिनः सन्ति । Ā. D. S.
   II. 10. 26. 14-17 ; see also V. Dh. S., XIX. 15
3. If a king found a treasure trove, he was required to give
   half of it to learned Brahmanas; if the latter found it, they could
   retain the whole. Others had to refund 16 per cent to the state.
   Manu, VIII. 35-9; Yāj. II. 34-5
4. Cf :—ब्रह्मचारी चरेत्कश्चिद्व्रतं षट्त्रिंशदाब्दिकम् ।
   समावृत्तो व्रती कुर्याद्धमस्यान्वेषणं ततः ।
   पञ्चाशदाब्दिको भोगस्तद्धनस्यापहारकः ॥
   Nārada in SCS, quoted at S. B. E., 38, pp. 248-4.

100 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
for government views and policies. The state in ancient
India, however, did not attempt to control education,
because it was liberally subsidising it. There were
no Directors of Public Instruction and Inspectors and
Deputy Inspectors of Schools to dictate and control
educational policy. Even when grants were given to
learned Brahmanas, there was no stipulation that they
would be withdrawn if free education was not given
by the donees. It was the king's duty to make such
grants. It was the Brahmana's duty to teach, even
when there were no grants. Each side was to perform
its duty though there were no specific stipulations.
Even when hundreds of villages were given to the
Nālandā University by Hindu Gupta emperors, they
did not stipulate that Buddhism should adopt a
particular policy towards the religion of the donors.
Monks at Nālandā declined to revise the traditional
rules of seniority in order to show some courtesy
concession to a royal donor, who desired to be regarded
as the seniormost monk, when he had joined the church
as a layman.² There was as perfect a toleration in
education as there was in religion. Kings were giving
grants to all institutions, without caring to control their
policy or curricula. Of course this was not an unmixed
blessing, as will be shown in the last chapter; but it
cannot be denied that it helped the cause of free
educational development.
Government Help elsewhere : The failure to
organise an educational department might appear to
the modern reader as a blemish in the ancient

1. Pinkewitch, New Education in Soviet Russia.
2. Narasimhagupta Bālāditya wanted this concession, but it
   was refused. He was regarded as the seniormost only among lay
   followers. Waters, II, pp. 164-5.

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 101
Indian state organisation. A glance at the contempo-
rary history shows, however, that the states in the
West also had not only no State Education Depart-
ments, but were not accustomed to give any substantial
grants to educational institutions started by private
individuals. Schools in the Middle Ages in Europe
were dependent not on the State but on the Church;
it was the latter which provided for the expenses, sup-
plied teachers and moulded aims and ideals.¹ Famous
English Universities like Oxford and Cambridge grew
out of no Order of Government or Resolution of
Parliament: they were originally centres of scholars
united by their zeal and aptitude for learning,
and anxious to hand down the torch of learning
to the next generation. Their sincerity and scho-
larship attracted donors like Walter de Merton
and Wykenham, who came forward to provide
hostels and colleges for residence and study.²
Down to the 19th century, education was financially
dependent on the Church, private benefactors and
corporations. In England, the state gave its first
grant for primary education as late as 1832, and that
was of £2000 only. In France the state took up
the cause of education only after the great Revolution
of 1788. It was in Germany that the state first
began to zealously champion the cause of education;
Martin Luther maintained that education ought to
be supported by state and his advocacy proved
effective. In India, however, the state recognised its
responsibility to the cause of education since earliest
times, as we have shown already. It believed in
the spontaneous growth of education and so did not
organise its own educational department.

1. Raymont, Principles o Education, p. 18.
2. Mayhew, p. 77.

102 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
A Resume : By making Upanayana obligatory
and professions hereditary, by showing encouragement
to learning in a variety of ways, by securing ample
patronage from rulers and landlords, by penalising
any stipulation for fees and by laying down a very
high code of conduct for the teaching profession,
Hindu society tried to make fairly efficient arrange-
ment and provision for the education of the rising
generation. The results show that before the decay
set in, these measures for the spread of education
proved to be fairly successful. As will be shown in the
Chapter VII, literacy was spread fairly widely among
the higher classes ; its percentage among them was
probably as high as 75% at the beginning of the Christian
era. In contemporary times in no other country in the
world was there so wide a spread of literacy. Hindu
achievements in the realm of medicine, metallurgy,
astronomy, chemistry, and spinning and weaving
were also of a high order, if judged by contemporary
standards. There was, undoubtedly a set back after
about 800 A.D.; its causes will be discussed in the
course of the concluding chapter.

Chapter V.
SOME EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND
INSTITUTIONS.
Different types of educational centres-Taxila-Effects of political
vicissitudes on its educational system-Not a university of the
modern type, but a cluster of private colleges-Strength of private
colleges-Great fame of Taxila-Boarding and lodging arrangements-
Subjects of study-Its later history and destruction-Benares-Its
early educational activity-As a centre of Buddhist learning-As a
centre of Hindu learning-Literary and educational activity under the
Muslim rule-Nālandā University-Its rise in c. 400 A.D.-Lay-out
of its campus-Buildings-Boarding and lodging arrangements-
Number of scholars-High standard of scholarship and piety-Rush
for admission from India and abroad-Library facilities-Lecture
arrangements-Catholic and comprehensive curriculum-Adminis-
trative machinery-Work in Tibet-Destruction of the University-
Valabhi University-Vikramaśilā University-Other Buddhist centres
of learning-Hindu temple colleges-At Salotgi, Ennayiram, Tirumuk-
kudal, Tiruvorriyur and Malkapuram-Some other temple schools and
colleges-Agrahāra villages as centres of higher education-Tols.
Different Types of Educational Centres :—It has
been already shown in the last chapter how educational
institutions came into existence in ancient India
rather late in her history. Education was for a long
time imparted by private teachers on their own
responsibility. These were no doubt scattered all over
the country, but they used to congregate in large
numbers in certain places on account of the facilities
they received there in their work. Such places were
usually capitals of kingdoms or famous holy places
(tīrthas). Kings and feudal chiefs were as a rule
patrons of learning, and so learned Brahmanas were
naturally attracted to their courts. It was this
circumstance that made cities like Taxila,
Pātaliputra, Kanauj, Mithilā and Dharā in northern
India and Malkhed, Kalyāṇī and Tanjore in southern
India famous centres of education. Holy places have

104 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
been since times immemorial famous centres of
learning ; the pilgrim traffic supplied a subsidiary
source of income to the famous teachers residing there.
It is this circumstance that made Benares, Kāñchī,
Nasik, Karhāṭaka, etc. famous centres of learning.
Sometimes kings used to found colonies of learned
Brahmanas by inviting them to settle in a new village
and providing for their maintenance. Such villages
were known as agrahāra villages and they naturally
became centres of learning. Causes that led to the
development of centres of education in monasteries
and temples have been already explained in Chap. IV.
It is proposed to give a short and succinct account
of important centres and institutions of education
in this chapter. The places have been arranged from
the point of their importance and antiquity.
TAXILA¹
Prehistoric Times :— Taxila, situated about 20
miles west of Rawalpindi, was undoubtedly the most
important and ancient seat of learning in Ancient
India. It was the capital of the important province
of Gandhāra and its history goes back into hoary
antiquity. It was founded by Bharata and named
after his son Taksha, who was established there as
its ruler². Janamejaya’s serpent sacrifice was
perfomed at this very place.³ Not much is known
of its early educational activities; but by the 7th
century B. C., it was a famous seat of learning,
attracting scholars from distant cities like Rājagṛiha,
Benares, and Mithilā. It was famous for its
philosophers in the days of Alexander the Great.

1. The correct ancient spelling of the city's name is Takshaśilā.
   The popular present-day spelling is used in the book.
2. Rāmāyaṇa VII, 101, 10-16
3. Mbh., I, 3, 20

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 105
Unfortunately we know very little about its
educational activities from non-Jātaka sources.
**Political Vicissitudes :—**Taxila was conquered
and occupied by the Persians in the 6th century B. C.,
by the Indo-Baktrians in the 2nd century B. C. by
the Scythians in the 1st century B. C., by the Kushāṇas
in the 1st century A. D. and by the Hūṇas in the
5th century A. D. We do not know what effects
these political vicissitudes had over educational activity
of the place. The ruins give traces of three different
city sites occupied at the beginning of the Baktrian,
Scythian and Kushāṇa periods. It is quite possible
that these political vicissitudes may have told upon
the city's prosperity, which may in turn have affected
the cause of education. Every successive power,
however, continued to maintain its provincial head-
quarters at Taxila ; this circumstance must have soon
obliterated the ravages of war.
Their Effects on Education : The Persian and
Greek occupation must have affected the curricula of
schools and colleges ; we have, however, only circum-
stantial evidence on the point. Epigraphical testimony
shows conclusively that the Persian occupation resulted
in the replacement of the national Brāhmī script by
the foreign Kharoshṭrī alphabet. The Scythian and
Kushāṇa conquerors had no culture or civilisation of
their own, but the Indo-Baktrian rulers were the
inheritors of the rich Greek civilisation. Their rule in
Taxila extended over a century and a quarter, and
must have made some impression on the educational
system of the place. It is quite possible that a few of
the ‘world renowned’ teachers of Taxila may have learnt
and opened classes in Greek language and literature in
order to facilitate the appointment of their students in
government services under the Greek administration.

106 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
Among the 'sippas' taught at Taxila may have
been included a training in Greek processes of coinage
and sculpture. There was as yet no prejudice
against foreign culture. It is quite possible that Greek
dramas may have been performed in the courts of
some of the numerous Greek princes and princelings.
Some Indians also may have read and appreciated
Sophocles and Eurepedes. The working knowlege of
Greek language may have been possessed by several
classes of society, as it was the language of the
conqueror.1 Greek orientation in Taxila studies could
not however have been considerable. Indo-Greek rulers
themselves were cut off from their mother country, and
many of the conquerors soon succumbed to the culture
and religion of the conquered. It is, however, a
great pity that the historian of ancient Indian
education should still be unable to supply authentic
information about the precise extent of Greek influence
on the system of education at Taxila.
No organised Institutions:—It may be observed
at the outset that Taxila did not possess any college
or university in the modern sense of the term. It was
simply a centre of education. It had many famous
teachers to whom hundreds of students flocked for
higher education from all parts of northern India.
But these teachers were not members of any insti-

1. From the romantic history of Apollonius of Tyana by
   Philostratus we learn that in the 1st century A.D. Indians and
   Greeks at Taxila knew each other's philosophy and that the villagers
   around the Gandhāra capital could understand and speak Greek.
   There may be some exaggeration in this picture, but recent excavations
   at Taxila have confirmed some of the topographical details given by
   Philostratus (Guide to Taxila by Sir John Marshal, pp. 15 & 97).
   We may, therefore, conclude that his information about Indians'
   acquaintance with Greek language and literature may be at least
   partly true. Greek studies, therefore, must have figured in Taxila
   curriculum during the Greek rule.