प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

II] SOME EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES AND POSTULATES 41
Kshatriya Viśvāmitra family. In the Upanishadic period
Kshatriyas took an important part in the development of
philosophy and were the exclusive custodians of many
esoteric doctrines, which Brahmanas could learn only from
them and not without some difficulty.¹ There are several
cases of Brahmanas approaching renowned Kshatriya
teachers like Aśvapati, Janaka and Pravāhaṇa Jaivali as
humble students of philosophy and religion.² We should
therefore note that the caste system succeeded in making
Vedic and religious education a monopoly for the Brah-
manas only at about 300 B. C. Nor was it a lucrative
monopoly in practice; it was a monopoly to beg.
The income of even the most famous Vedic teachers was
a precarious one and compared very poorly with the gains
of a successful merchant or a captain.
Brahmanas as Teachers of Non-Vedic Subjects :
Smṛitis lay down that Brahmanas should not follow the
professions of Kshatriyas and Vaishyas except in times
of difficulties. This would naturally imply that Brahmanas
did not figure as teachers in military or commercial lines.
How could one become a teacher in a profession which
one was not expected to follow ? For a long time, how-
ever, Brahmanas were following a number of non-Vedic
pursuits and professions and also figuring as their teachers.
What can be more incompatible with the Brahmanical ideal
of piety and religiousness than the military profession ?
And yet we find Brahmanas figuring as teachers of the
military science. The Pāṇḍava and Kaurava heroes, who
fought so bravely in the Mahābhārata war, were not
trained by any Kshatriya teacher; their preceptor, Droṇā-
chārya was a Brahmana. Brahmanas, who were trainers

1 Ch. Up., V. 3. 7; Br. Up. II. 1.15
2 Br. Up. II. 1.14, IV.1.1, Ch. Up. IV. 4.1, etc

42 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
of horses and elephants, are mentioned in Smṛitis (Manu,
III. 162). Jātakas also show that at Taxila, Brahmanas
used to impart education in several practical professions
like the military art, medicine and snake charming etc.
both to Brahmanas and Kshatriyas.¹ Dhanurveda lays
down that Brahmanas are as eligible to be the teachers of
the military science as Kshatriyas (1.4). Being as a rule
more intelligent than members of other castes, they must
have shone in these lines also, as for instance was the
case with Droṇāchārya. It was only in later times, from
c. 500 A.D. onwards, that Brahmanas ceased to be teachers
of useful arts and professions owing to the growing rigour
of the caste system. This was rather unfortunate, for it
prevented the utilisation of the intellect of one of the most
intelligent classes in society for expanding the boundaries
of knowledge in the domain of practical sciences.
Caste System and Curriculum, Domination of
Vedic Studies: Let us now find out the influence the caste
system exercised on the curriculum. A perusal of the
relevant rules of the Smṛitis produces the impression that
Vedic studies must have dominated the course prescribed
for the Brahmanas. It has been emphatically laid down
that all Brahmanas should devote twelve years to Vedic
studies after their Upanayana. Such, however, was not
the case in actual practice. Only a small section of the
Brahmana community,—possibly not more than its one-
fifth,—used to devote itself to Vedic 'studies, when new
branches of knowledge like grammar, philosophy, law and
classical Sanskrit literature came to be developed. For the
preservation of the Vedic literature, the services of only
a small section of the community were necessary; the rest

¹ खत्तियमानवा ब्राह्मणमानवा च तस्सेव संतिके सिप्पं उग्गण्हितुं गच्छंति ।
Asadisa J. No. 181; see also Thusa J. No 338.

II] SOME EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES AND POSTULATES 43
were required to memorise the few Vedic Mantras neces-
sary for daily religious purposes and encouraged to devote
their main energy to the development of new branches of
knowledge like philosophy, grammar, and classical Sanskrit
literature, where they were able to make substantial
contributions, which still continue to be highly valued both
in India and abroad.
Vedic Studies of the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas;
According to the Smṛiti rules, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas
also had to pursue Vedic studies after their Upanayana.
These however were never deep or prolonged. In some
Jātaka stories, we no doubt read that some princes used
to study all the three Vedas as well as eighteen practical
sciences¹; in the Mahābhārata also we find that the
Kaurava princes are represented as experts in Veda,
Vedānta and the various branches of the military science
(I. 118 and 133). A perusal of the relevant passages shows
that the writers of the above works were more anxious
to enumerate all the known branches of knowledge and
represent them as being mastered by their heroes, than in
narrating the actual state of affairs in their contemporary
times. We have seen already that the Brāhmaṇas, who
did not intend to follow the theological career, contented
themselves with the knowledge of only a few Vedic hymns;
Kshatriyas and Vaishyas must have done the same; in
later life they had no prospect of becoming Vedic teachers,
and for their military or commercial career Vedic educa-
tion was not useful or necessary. Vedic and philosophical
studies were included in early times in the curriculum of
the prince, but they were left out in the course of time.
From about the beginning of the Christian era, the

¹ Cf. सोळसवस्सपदेसिको हुत्वा तकसिलायां सिप्पंउग्गण्हित्वा तिण्णं वेदानं पारं
गत्वा अट्ठारसानं विज्जट्ठानं निष्फत्तिं पापुनाति । Dummedha J. No. 50.

44 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
Upanayana ritual began to fall into disuse in the case
of the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas and this naturally gave
a great set back to their Vedic education.¹ Gradually they
were reduced to the position of the Shudras and completely
debarred from the Vedic education by about 1000 A. D.
(Alberuni, II. p. 136)
Vedic Education and the Shudras: Sacred texts
have laid down in very emphatic terms that the Shudra
should be rigorously excluded from the Vedic education
and rituals. This injunction has been always carried out
in practice.² The carpenter no doubt is declared to be
eligible for Upanayana and Vedic studies in some early-
texts. He however was at that early period a member of
the Aryan and not the Shudra community. The exclusion
of the Shudras from the Vedic studies undoubtedly ap-
pears as unjustifiable to us at present, but there were
peculiar circumstances that necessitated this step in early
times. The art of writing was not utilised for the purpose
of preserving the Vedic texts for a long time. The Aryan
theologians believed that if there was the slightest mistake
in the accent or the pronunciation of the Vedic Mantras,
a disaster would inevitably issue.³ As the Vedic Sanskrit
1 Hence the observation of Dalhana, a medieval writer at,
Suśruta, Śārīra, X, 52, यथावर्णमिति ब्राह्मणात्त्रयीं राजन्यो दण्डनीतिं वैश्यो
वार्तामिति ।
2 यथेमां वाचं कल्याणीमावदानि जनेभ्यः । ब्रह्मराजन्याभ्यां शूद्राय चार्याय
च स्वाय चारणाय च ॥ Vaj. Sam. XXVI, 2 is taken by some as referring
to the admission of the Shudras to the Vedic education. This, how-
ever, is very questionable interpretation; कल्याणी वाक् refers to the
preceding stanza, which it is prayed here, may be applicable to the
whole of humanity.
3 Cf मंत्रो हीनः स्वरतो वर्णतो वा मिथ्याप्रयुक्तो न तमर्थमाह ।
स वाग्वज्रो यजमानं हिनस्ति यथेन्द्रशत्रुः स्वरतोऽपराधात् ॥
Pāṇinisikshā, v. 52.

II] SOME EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES AND POSTULATES 45
was not the mother tongue of the Shudras, it was feared
that Vedic hymns would be transformed out of recognition,
if they were transmitted orally in Shudra families from
generation to generation. In the eyes of the theologian,
this would be a great disaster. Later on when female
education began to lag behind, and women as a class ceased
to be educated in Sanskrit, it is interesting to note that the
Brahmana theologians did not flinch from placing their
own mothers, wives and daughters in the category of the
Shudras and declaring unhesitatingly that they also were
unfit for Vedic studies. Theological animus or pride was
thus not at the root of the exclusion of the Shudras and
women from the Vedic education. Nor did it amount to
a total denial of religious education; for women and
Shudras were permitted to get religious enlightenment
from the study of Smṛitis, Epics and Purāṇas.
Conclusion: It will be thus seen that with the
exception of the exclusion of the Shudras from the Vedic
education, the caste system for a long time did not result
in restricting professions to particular castes. This was
but natural. Teaching may be a fit profession for
Brahmanas, but if some of them were intellectually
inferior, their birth could not impart to them the necessary
efficiency as teachers. Even a Brahmana writer therefore
is constrained to observe that dull Brahmana children
should follow the profession of the Kshatriya or the
Vaishya.¹ Ambitious Brahmanas also could not be pre-
vented from following the military profession, where
glittering prizes awaited the successful adventurer. A
Brahmana priest of holy Benares is to be seen sending his
son to Taxila to learn archery, because it was predicted
1 राजन्यवैश्यकर्म विद्याहीनः । G. D. S., 1. 6. 16.

46. EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
    that he was to be a king.¹ It was ambition alone that
    was responsible for sovereignty being vested in Brahmana
    families like those of the Śuṅgas, the Kaṇvas and the
    Kadambas. The recruitment to the army was not confined
    to the Kshatriya caste; inscriptions make it clear that it
    was very largely recruited from the agriculturists and
    Shudras. Dhanurveda also contemplates military education
    for all the four castes. It is interesting to note that when
    Yuan Chwang was in India in the second quarter of the
    7th century A. D., the kings of Ujjain, Maheshvar and
    Assam were Brahmanas, those of Pariyātra and Kanauj,
    Vaishyas, and those of Matipura and Sindh, Shudras.
    If members of all classes could become kings, it follows
    that they must be all following the military profession.
    The commercial and industrial lines were also very often
    followed by many Brahmanas and Kshatriyas. The caste
    system therefore made education rigid only to a limited
    degree and that too from c. 800 A. D.
    Caste System and Buddhist Education: The caste
    system did not at all influence the education imparted in
    Buddhist centres of learning. This was but natural, for
    the Buddha was against the system and argued that the
    worth of a man should be determined by his actual merit,
    and not by his descent or family status. Persons were
    admitted to the Order irrespective of their castes; Upāli,
    one of the favourite disciples of the Buddha, was a barber
    before he joined the Order.² But though it is true that
    everybody could become a preacher after a certain number
    of years, it is interesting to note that among famous Bud-
    dhist teachers and scholars, the vast majority consisted of
47. Sārābhaṅga J. No. 522.
48. Servants, slaves and debtors were refused admission to the Order
    because the Buddha did not desire to affect the rights of third
    parties by the admissions made into the Church.

II] SOME EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES AND POSTULATES 47
those who had originally hailed from Brahmanical families.
Thus Moggalāna, Sāariputta, Nāgasena, Vasubandhu and
Nāgārjuna were all Brahmanas before their conversion.
As far as the curriculum is concerned, it was predominently
religious and philosophical, as it was primarily intended
for monks and nuns and not for the laity. We therefore
need not consider whether the caste system in any way
determined or affected the imparting of useful or profes-
sional education in Buddhist colleges.

Chapter III
THE TEACHER AND THE STUDENT.
Teacher deeply revered-His training-His qualifications-High code
of his profession-Duties of the teacher-His income-Student's duties-
Relations between teachers and students-Student's daily life-His duty
to beg daily food-Rules of discipline-Were they unreasonable?
Introduction : We have now seen what were the
ideals, postulates and principles of the ancient Indian educa-
tional system. Now we propose to discuss the topics and
problems connected with the qualifications of the teacher,
the ideals which animated him, the position that was
accorded to him in society, the nature of the relationship
that existed between him and his students and the import-
ant features of the student life. These are important topics,
as they have a vital bearing on the success or failure of
the educational system.
Importance of the Teacher : The importance which
in modern times is attached to the Institution or the
Alma Mater was in ancient days attached to the teacher
in India. This was but natural, for organised educational
institutions came rather late into existence in this country,
as was also the case in the West. The person who takes
charge of immature children and makes them worthy
and useful citizens in society was naturally held in high
reverence. It was the function of the teacher to lead the
student from the darkness of ignorance to the light of
knowledge. The lamp of learning is concealed under a
cover, says one thinker; the teacher removes it and lets
out the light.¹ The student therefore must be very grateful

1. Cf. यथा घटप्रतिच्छन्ना रत्नराजा महाप्रभाः ।
   अकिंचित्करतां प्राप्तास्तद्वद्विद्याश्चतुर्दश ॥
   Quoted by Aparāka on Yaj. I, 212

III] THE TEACHER AND THE STUDENT 49
to him and show him the highest possible reverence. He
is to be revered even more than parents; to the latter, we
owe our physical birth, to the former our intellectual
regeneration. From the Vedic age downwards the teacher
has been all along designated as the spiritual and intellec-
tual father of the student.¹ Without his help and guid-
ance, no education is possible. He is in fact indispensable.
This is graphically illustrated by the story of Ekalavya,
who when refused admission to his school by Droṇa, pre-
pared an image of the teacher under whom he longed to
learn, and successfully finished his studies in archery
under the inspiration that he received from the inanimate
representation of his animate preceptor. Buddhists and
Jains also attached equally great importance to the tea-
cher. This importance attached to the teacher need not
surprise us, for it is now admitted on all hands that
neither buildings nor equipment exercise such influence
on students as is exercised by cultured and competent
teachers, who instruct as well as inspire.
Why the Teacher was Revered : The great import-
ance that was attached to the teacher in the ancient
system of education and the high reverence that was
shown to him in society are not difficult to understand.
Since the earliest times the Vedic learning is being
transmitted orally in India from one generation to another.
This continued to be the case even when the art of
writing came into general vogue. The Mahābhārata
condemns to hell a person who commits the Vedas to
writing. Great importance was attached to the proper
1 Cf. आचार्य उपनयमानो ब्रह्मचारिणं कृणुते गर्भमन्तः । A. V. XI, 5, 3, See
also Va. Dh. S., 28,38-9; Gau. Dh. S., I. 1, 10; Manu, II, 170.
Bau. Dh. S., 1. 2. 48 maintains that a Śrotriya can never be
regarded as issueless, his students are his sons.
4

50 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
accent and pronunciation in the Vedic recitation, and
these could be properly learnt only from the lips of a
properly qualified teacher. The continuous transmission of
the store of the Vedic knowledge, which society regarded
as priceless, was possible only through the instrument-
ality of the teacher and his importance therefore could
not be exaggerated. With the rise of the mystical systems
of philosophy in the age of the Upanishads, the reverence
for the Guru became still more intensified ; for spiritual
salvation depended almost entirely upon his proper
guidance.¹ This deification of the philosophical Guru
was not without its reaction in favour of the ordinary
teacher who taught disinterestedly without stipulating for
any fees. We should further remember that books being
dear and rare, the student had generally to rely upon his
teacher alone to a much greater degree than is the case
now.² in the case of professions, even when books exist
in plenty, a good deal more has to be learnt from the
teacher. So a competent and sympathetic teacher, who
would unreservedly place at the disposal of his pupil the
essence of all his experience, could hardly be over-
venerated by the artisan apprentice working under him.
The glorification of the teacher must have produced
great psychological influence on students, for childhood
is the hey day of personal influence.

1 नैषा मतिस्तर्केणापनेया प्रोक्तान्येनैव सुज्ञानाय प्रेष्ठ । K. Up., II, 9.
तद्विज्ञानाय गुरुमेवाभिगच्छेत्समित्पाणिः श्रोत्रियं ब्रह्मनिष्ठम् ।:
Mun. Up, 1, 2, 3.
2 Mss. were often unreliable; so there was a prejudice against
students, who had not read under a teacher: cf:—
पुस्तकप्रत्ययाधीतं नाधीतं गुरुसंनिधौ ।
भ्राजते न सभामध्ये जारगर्भ इव स्त्रियः ॥
Nārada quoted by Pa. Mā., at I, 38.

III] THE TEACHER AND THE STUDENT 51
Teacher's Training:—Though the teacher was held
in high reverence, it does not appear that any institutions
like Teachers' Training Colleges of the modern times
existed in the past. One of the hopes expressed at the
convocation (Samāvartana) was that the graduate may
have the good luck of attracting students from all
quarters.¹ It is therefore clear that no further training
was deemed necessary for the graduate in order to qualify
him for the teaching profession. The reasons for this
are not far to seek. Students received individual attention
and lessons from their teachers, as will be shown in
Chapter VI. During their educational course Vedic students
could note how precisely teachers used to pronounce and
intonate the Vedic Mantras when teaching them to their
students. As far as the study of other branches like
grammar, logic, rhetoric, philosophy etc. was concerned,
no special training was necessary for fostering and deve-
loping the powers of exposition and elucidation of students
specialising in them. In the modern system of education
students can get their degrees by listening to their teachers
in the class-rooms and answering the question papers in
the examination halls. Such was not the case in ancient
India. Several times during his course the student was
called upon to pass through the fiery ordeal of learned
debates (Śāstrārtha) when he was called upon to defend
his own position and attack that of the opponent in
heated discussions. Powers of debate and discussion were
thus remarkably developed by the time the student finished
his education. Advanced students were also given
opportunities of teaching the beginners in most of the
educational institutions.² The graduate therefore had a
1 Bau. Gr. S., II, 6.
2 See Suta-soma-jātaka No. 537. Of the advanced scholars at
P. T. O.

52 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
fairly good teaching experience to his credit by the time
he left his alma mater. The absence of training colleges
therefore did not materially tell upon the efficiency
of the teachers at least as far as higher education was
concerned.
Qualifications of the Teacher : Since the teacher
was held in high veneration, he was naturally expected to
possess several qualifications. The student was to look
upon the teacher as the ideal person and regulate his own
conduct by the example of his teacher. The latter there-
fore was expected to be a pious person of very high
character. He was to be patient and treat his students
impartially. Above all he was to be well grounded in his
own branch of knowledge; he was to continue his read-
ing throughout his life.¹ Profound scholarship however
was not sufficient for the teacher. He must have a fluent
delivery, readiness of wit, presence of mind, a great stock
of interesting anecdotes and must be able to expound
the most difficult texts without any difficulty or delay.²
In a word, he should be not only a scholar but also an
adept in teaching; then only he would be a great teacher,
as pointed out by Kālidāsa.³ The teacher must further be
able to inspire as well as to instruct; his piety, character,
(Continued from the last page)
Nālandā and Valabhi, I-tsing says that they passed two or
three years in these Universities, instructed by their teachers and
instructing others. I-tsing, p. 177
1 यावज्जीवमधीते विप्रः ।
2 प्रवृत्तवाक् चित्रकथः ऊहवान् प्रतिभानवान् ।
आशु ग्रन्थस्य वक्ता च यः स पण्डित उच्यते ॥
V. 33. 33
3 शिष्टा क्रिया कस्यचिदात्मसंस्था संक्रान्तिरन्यस्य विशेषरूपा ।
यस्योभयं साधु स शिक्षकाणां धुरि प्रतिष्ठापयितव्य एव ॥
Mālavikāgnimitram, Act I.

III] THE TEACHER AND THE STUDENT 53
scholarship and cultured life should be able to exercise a
subtle and permanent influence over the young students
sitting at his feet for their lessons.
High Code of the Teaching Profession : The teach-
ing profession had a very high code in ancient India.
There was often competition for getting more students ;
but if one teacher was found to be less well grounded
than his rival in his subject, he was expected to close
down his school and become a disciple of his rival in
order to get full knowledge.¹ The teacher was to begin
the education of the student as soon as he was satisfied
that the latter was sincere and possessed the necessary
calibre ; he was not to postpone instructions unnecessarily.²
1 G. Br., I. 1. 31 shows how on being defeated in debate with
Maudgalya, Maitreya at once closed his school and became the pupil
of his vanquisher in order to become better grounded in his
subject. The debate between Śaṅkara and Maṇḍana Miśra was
also held on the usual condition that the vanquished should
become the disciple of the vanquisher.
2 Usually teachers were allowed to watch the conduct and
calibre of the new entrants for about six months or a year:
but after that period they were bound to start instructions.
If they did not do so, they were saddled with all the sins of
the students they were keeping in suspense; cf. संवत्सरोषिते शिष्ये
गुरुर्ज्ञानमनिर्दिशन्। हरते दुष्कृतं तस्य शिष्यस्य वसतो गुरुः॥
Kūrma P. in VMS., p. 515
Ashṭāṅga-hṛidaya, Sūtrasthāna, chap. 2, allows only a six months'
period of waiting for medical students. Longer periods of
waiting like 5 or 32 years that we sometimes come across in
Tantras (e. g Tantrarāja-tantra, II. 37-8) and Upanishads (e. g.
Ch. Up. VIII. 7. 2. 3.) were intended for those who aspired to
be initiated in secret and esoteric philosophical doctrines, and
not for ordinary students.

54 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
The duty to teach was imperative;¹ all students possessed
of the necessary calibre and qualifications were to be
taught, irrespective of the consideration as to whether
they would be able to pay any honorarium or not. We
have seen already that no regular fees were charged by
ancient Indian teachers and institutions. The poorest of
the poor could demand and get education from the tea-
cher by merely agreeing to do household work in the tea-
cher’s house. Further, the teacher was required to teach
every thing he knew to his disciple; he could withhold
nothing under the apprehension that his pupil may one
day outshine him in the profession.² How generous and
largehearted teachers usually were in this connection can
be judged from the conduct and exclamation of Alāra
Kalama, when the future Buddha had finished his edu-
cation under him :—
“Happy friend are we in that we look upon such a
venerable one, such a fellow ascetic as you. The doctrine
which I know, you too know, and the doctrine which
you know, I too know. As I am, so you are, as you are
so am I. Pray, sir, let us be joint wardens of this
company”.³
1 The Smritikaustubha narrates how a teacher was condemned
to be a mango tree in his next existence for his failure to
impart Vedic knowledge; cf. स चूतवृक्षो विप्रोऽभूद्विद्वान्वै वेदपारगः ।
विद्या न दत्ता विप्रेभ्यस्तेनैव तरुतां गतः । There is an obvious subtle
humour in the retribution imposed upon the teacher who
would not give what he possessed to others; as a mango tree
he would have to give all fruits to others and retain none for
himself.
2 Milinda-pañha, I. p. 142
3 Further Dialogues of the Buddha, Ariyapariyesana-sutta, p. 116.
Compare also the spirited protest of Bhāradvāja when he
apprehended that his royal pupil was suspecting that he was
not teaching him all that he knew; P. T. O.

[III] THE TEACHER AND THE STUDENT 55
Duties of the Teacher: The relationship between
the teacher and the pupil¹ was regarded as filial in character
both by Hindu and Buddhist thinkers; the teacher
therefore had to discharge several duties in addition to
imparting intellectual education and helping spiritual
progress. He was the spiritual father of the pupil and
was held as morally responsible for the drawbacks of his
pupils.² His extra-academic duties were varied and
numerous. He was always to keep a guard over the
conduct of his pupil. He must let him know what to
cultivate and what to avoid; about what he should be
earnest and what he may neglect. He must instruct him
as to sleep and as to keeping himself in health, and as to
what food he may take and what he may reject. He
should advise him as to the people whose company he
should keep and as to the villages (and localities) he may
frequent.³ If he was poor, he was to help him in getting
some financial help from people of influence and substance
in the locality. He was to arrange for his food and
clothing: the teachers of Sanskrit Pāṭhaśālās in eastern
India used to do this till quite recently. If the student
was ill, the teacher was to nurse and serve him as a father
would do his son.⁴
(Continued from the last page)
नाहमिदं वेद। यद्यवेदिषं कथं ते नावक्ष्यमिति।
समूलो वैष परिशुष्यति योऽनृतमभिवदति ॥
Pr. Up., VI. 1
1 Cf. पुत्रमिवैनमभिकांक्षन् Ap. Dh., S., 1. 2. 8. M. V. 1. 32
2 अतीत्य बंधूनवलंघ्य शिष्यानाचार्यमागच्छति शिष्यदोषः ॥
Pañcharatra 1. 21
3 Milinda-pañha, Vol. I, p. 142
4 The testimony of I-tsing shows that this was also done in
Buddhist monasteries; p. 120. The Buddha has left express
injunctions on the point; Mahāvagga, I. 26. 1-6

56 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
Income of the Teacher; Early Period: We have no
data to enable us to get a precise idea of the normal income
of the teacher in the early period. In ancient days in India as
in the West, there was no Education Department prescribing
a scale of salaries, which was more or less followed in
private institutions also. Educational institutions them-
selves came into existence only at about the 5th century
A. D. We have already seen how the educational theory
and practice prohibited the teacher from charging any
fixed scale of fees from his students. The teacher in
ancient India therefore had, as a general rule, no fixed
income. We have seen already that usually he was
also a priest. His income therefore consisted partly of
offerings obtained by him on the occasions of rituals and
sacrifices and partly of voluntary gifts given by his stu-
dents either during or after their course. There was to
be no stipulation for these presents; so they varied with
the financial capacity of the guardians. At Taxila we
learn that the 'world-renowned' teachers used to have 500
students reading under them, and that the rich ones among
the latter used to offer a fee of a thousand coins.¹ This
however does not enable us to get any accurate idea of
the teacher's income. The number of students, 500, is
conventional² and not real and we do not know whether
the fee of 1000 coins offered was for one year or for
the whole course, and whether it included the expenses
of boarding and lodging also, which were normally offered
by the Taxila teacher. We therefore can form no definite
idea of the income of the teacher during the early period.
1 The coins were probably silver Kārshāpaṇas, each weighing
about one third of the modern rupee.
2 Usually each teacher had only about 15 to 20 students read-
ing under him; see Chp. VI.

III] THE TEACHER AND THE STUDENT 57
Income of the Teacher in Later Period: We how-
ever get more definite data about the teacher's income from
the time educational institutions were evolved. Teachers
at Buddhist Universities of Nălandā and Vikramaśīlā
were monks and so required no salaries; the administra-
tion had to spend for each monk-teacher just the amount
necessary for the maintenance of only four students.¹
In south Indian colleges the annual salary of teachers
varied according to their qualifications and subjects from
160 to 200 maunds of rice.² This income was about
two and half times the income of the village accountant
or the carpenter, and was equal to about four times the
amount necessary for meeting the normal food expenses
of a family of five persons. We would not be wrong
in supposing that as a general rule in ancient India the
Sanskrit teacher imparting higher education received a
similar income. He was thus neither suffering from
abject poverty nor rolling in superfluous wealth. Society
enabled him to lead a life of moderate comforts accord-
ing to the ideal of plain living and high thinking. We
can now understand why learned teachers were exempted
from taxation. The income of the primary teacher
was naturally less than that of the Sanskrit teacher. In
Bengal at the advent of the British rule, the income
of the primary teacher was just equal to that of the
1 Bose, Indian Teachers of Buddhist Universities, p. 35.
2 S. I. E. R., 1917, No. 333. The total cost of one good meal for
one year was about 8 maunds of rice. The salaries above men-
tioned were given in the college at Ennayiram; in other insti-
tutions they were sometimes different. Sometimes inscriptions
disclose that the Veda teachers used to get only 30 maunds of
rice per annum; in such cases they were probably part-time
teachers and were expected to supplement their income from the
proceeds of the priestly profession.

58 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
patwari, who collected the village revenue or the amin,
who settled village disputes on behalf of Zemindar.¹
Probably the same was the case during the ancient Indian
period. This income however was not in the form of
a fixed salary, but had to be collected in the form of
voluntary and irregular subscriptions from the villagers
and guardians.
Duties of Students : Let us now survey the
duties of students towards their teachers. The student
was to hold his teacher in deep reverence and honour
him like the king, parents and god.² His outward behavi-
our must be in conformity with the rules of decorum
and good manners, he ought to get up and salute his tea-
cher in the proper way, he ought not to occupy a higher
seat or wear a gaudier dress. Reviling and backbiting
are severely condemned. It however did not follow that
the student was to connive blindly at his teacher's mis-
conduct. Both the Buddha³ and Āpastamba,⁴ who
enjoin high reverence for the teacher, lay down that the
student should draw his teacher's attention in private to
his failings, and dissuade him from wrong views if he
happened to be inclined towards them; the duty of obedi-
ence comes to an end if the teacher transgresses the limits
of Dharma.⁵ His commands were to be regarded as

1 Stark, Vernacular Education in Bengal, pp. 28—48.
2 I Manu, II, 200 ff. Cf. also Charaka Saṁhitā, Vimāna-sthāna,
VIII, 4, :-
तमग्निवच्च देववच्च राजवच्च पितृवच्च भर्तृवच्चाप्रमत्तः परिचरेत् ।
3 MV., 1. 25. 10. 20.
4 प्रमादानाचार्यस्य बुद्धिपूर्वकं वानियमातिक्रमं रहसि बोधयेत् । 1. 2. 6, 13
5 आचार्याधीनो भवति अन्यत्राधर्माचरणात् । G. D. S. III, 1.15
गुरोरप्यवलिप्तस्य कार्याकार्यमजानतः ।
उत्पथप्रतिपन्नस्य न्याय्यं भवति शासनम् ॥ Mbh., I. 140. 54

III] THE TEACHER AND THE STUDENT 59
ultra vires, if they were likely to jeopordise the student's
life or were against the law of the land.
Duty .of Personal Service : Both in Buddhist
monasteries and Hindu Gurukulas, the student was
expected to do personal service to the teacher 'like
a son, suppliant or slave.¹ He was to give him water
and tooth stick, carry his seat and supply him bath
water (M. V.. I. 25, 11-12). If necessary, he was to
cleanse his utensils and wash his clothes.² He was fur-
ther to do all sundry work in his monastery or his tea-
cher's house, like cleansing the rooms etc., bringing fuel
or guarding cattle. This custom existed in the Vedic
age³ and was widely prevalent in later times also. Tradition
asserts that even great personages like Śrī-Kṛishṇa had
deemed it an honour to do all kind of menial work in
their preceptor's house during their student days. It was
held that no progress in knowledge was possible without
service in the teacher's house.⁴
Limitation on this Duty : There were, however,
limitations to this duty to work. The teacher was prohi-
bited from assigning any work that was likely to inter-
fere with the studies of the student. The duty was
further more nominal than real in the case of paying
scholars. We have seen already that the duty to teach
was imperative and a teacher could not refuse a student
merely because he was poor. Poor students were admit-
ted if they were willing to help the teacher in his house-
hold or farm work; this duty to work was effectively
operative only in their cases. At Taxila the students
¹ पुत्रवद्दासषदर्थिवच्चानुचरता त्वया....।
² Mahāvagga, 1. 25-2
³ G. Br., I, 2, 1-8.
⁴ गुरुशुश्रूषया ज्ञानं शान्ति योगेन विन्दति । Mbh,, V. 36. 52

60 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
who used to pay their teachers honorarium in advance
used to stay in their houses like eldest sons, doing no
household work and spending all their time in study. Free
students,—dhammāntevāsikas,—on the other hand used to
do all kind of manual work for their teachers. They
used to work by day, when paying scholars were receiving
their lessons ; teachers used to hold special classes for
them at night with a view to see that their education did
not suffer on account of their day’s work on the farm
or in the household.¹ At Nālandā also secular students
who sought free boarding, lodging and education had to
do some manual work for the monasteries.²
· Mutual reltaions between Teachers and
Students : Public educational institutions, where tea-
chers used to teach students admitted by the managing
body, were not many in ancient India. The relations
between the teacher and the student were therefore
direct and not through any institution. The student
usually went to such a teacher as attracted his atten-
tion by his reputation for character and scholarship ;
the teacher selected such students as appeared to him
sincere, zealous and well-behaved. The student usually
lived either under the roof of the teacher or under his
direct supervision. The teacher not only did not demand
any fee but also helped the poor students in getting food
or clothing. He nursed him if he was ill. The student
naturally lived as a member of the household of the tea-
cher and helped him in doing the household work if
necessary. The teacher on the other hand would not

1. Cf. धंमंतेवासिका आचरियस्स कम्मं कत्वा रत्तिं सिप्पमुग्गण्हन्ति आचरियभाग-
   दायका गेहे जेट्ठपुत्ता विय हुत्वा सिप्पमेव उग्गण्हन्ति ।
   Tilamuṭṭhijātaka, No. 252
2. Takakusu, I-tsing, P. 106.