प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 147
THE AGE OF THE UPANISHADS AND THE
SŪTRAS
(First millennium B. C.)
VEDIC STUDIES; METHOD CHANGED: The
Vedic literature began to be universally regarded
as revealed in this period and that honour was gradually
extended to the Brāhmaṇas¹ and the Upanishads
also. Vedic schools had to perform the onerous task
of preserving this great and growing literature. The
art of writing was known by this time, but its aid
was not taken for this purpose, as it was believed that
it would be irreligious to do so². The theory that the
slightest mistake in the recitation of the Vedic hymns
would not only prevent the realisation of the expected
reward, but would also bring about a disaster on the
reciter³, gained ground in this period and necessitated
the devotion of a large part of the energy of the rising
generation to the task of the accurate memorising
of the Vedic literature. Extraordinary precautions
were taken to prevent the corruption of the Vedic text
by devising the pada-pāṭha,⁴ krama-pāṭha, jaṭā-pāṭha

1. The prose literature devoted to the task of explaining the
   rituals, legends and knotty points about the sacrifices enjoined in the
   Vedic hymns was known by this name. It should not be mistaken
   with the members of the Brahmana caste.
2. Cf. वेदानां लेखकाश्चैव सर्वे निरयगामिनः ।
3. मंत्रो हीनः स्वरतो वर्णतो वा मिथ्याप्रयुक्तो न तमर्थमाह ।
   स वाग्वज्रो यजमानं हिनस्ति यथेन्द्रशत्रुः स्वरतोऽपराधात् ।
4. The pada-pāṭha required the students to memorise each
   word in the Vedic hymns separately after restoring it to its original
   form. Supposing a, b, and c were the three opening words of a hymn,
   the krama-pāṭha recited them as ab, bc, etc., the jaṭā-pāṭha as ab, ba,
   ab, etc., and the ghana-pāṭha as ab, ba, abc, cba, abc. The reader will
   now get some idea of the onerousness of the task of memorising
   these pāṭhas.

148 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
and ghana-pāṭha, and all these had to be committed to
memory by those who desired to be regarded as
experts in the Vedic lore. This further increased the
burden on the memory. As centuries rolled on, it
became more and more difficult for the Vedic expert
to memorise this extensive and growing literature and
also to understand its meaning ; for the spoken dialect
was becoming more and more differentiated from the
Vedic language. It was therefore decided towards
the end of this period that some Vedic scholars should
devote their energies to the mechanical memorising
of this extensive literature with a view to prevent its
loss, while others should address themselves to the
problem of its interpretation by studying commentaries,
etymology, lexicography, etc. But for this differentia-
tion of function, the extensive Vedic literature could
not have been preserved for posterity. This arrange-
ment no doubt exposed some Brahmanas to the taunt
of being mere parrot-like reciters of the Vedic hymns.
It is gratifying to find that they did not mind it in the
wider interest of the preservation of the national
literature and culture.
New Topics of Study : The period under review
was the most creative era in the history of the Hindu
intellect ; it recorded remarkable achievements in
the realm of philosophy, sacred law, epic literature,
philology, grammar, astronomy and several fine and
useful arts like sculpture, medicine and shipbuilding.
On the one hand the development of these branches
naturally created a new fascination for the students
of the age, and on the other, the rise of the protestant
movements led by the Upanishadic, Jain and
Buddhist thinkers told on the popularity of the Vedic
religion and literature. The current language had
now become very widely differentiated from the

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 149
Vedic idiom and thus created a new difficulty in the
Vedic studies. As a combined consequence of all
these factors, Vedic studies fell into background
towards the end of this period and greater attention
began to be paid to the cultivation of the new
branches of learning referred to above.
Combination of Liberal and Useful Education :
Several references in the contemporary literature
indicate that an attempt was made in this period to
combine liberal with professional or useful education.
Graduates of this age are usually described as well
versed in the Vedas as well as in eighteen sippas, i. e.
practical arts and sciences.¹ These latter included
archery, military art, medicine, magic, snake charming,
conveyancing, administrative training, music, dancing,
painting, engineering, etc². It is of course clear that
no graduate could get mastery in all the Vedas as
well as in all the sippas as is suggested by some
passages; it is however clear from some references
in Jātakas that literary education was combined with
one of the useful professions referred to above in the
famous centres of education like Taxila. This practice
enabled the average literary student to stand on his
own legs.
THE AGE OF THE SMṚITIS, PURĀṆAS AND
NIBANDHAS.
(1st century A. D. to c. 1200 A. D.)
Vedic Studies : The Vedic studies fell further into
background during this period. A sufficient number of
Brahmanas however was always available to preserve

1. Chh. Up., VII. 1. 2. Mil. P. Vol. I. p ; 247
2. See Appendix IV

150 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
and transmit the Vedic literature to the generations
unborn. They used to do their work very thoroughly,
for the experts among them would memorise not only
the Vedic hymns, but also their pada-pāṭha krama-pāṭha,
_jaṭā-pāṭha and ghana-pāṭha._¹ They used to master the
details connected with the numerous Vedic sacrifices
also. Some of them used to study two, three or even
four Vedas and were therefore known as Dvivedins,
Trivedins, and Chaturvedins respectively. Many
donees of the copperplate grants of this period bear
these surnames; they could have become eligible for
them only by prolonged and almost life-long devotion to
the cause of Vedic studies. This devotion was almost
tragic; it did not bring any adequate pecuniary
compensation, and required them to memorise texts,
which not they, but others, could understand and
expound. The number of the Vedic scholars, devoting
themselves to the task of interpreting and expounding
Vedic hymns, dwindled down very considerably during
this period. Vedic studies therefore usually meant
the mere cramming of the sacred texts and were often
commented upon very adversely by some thinkers of
the age, some of whom went to the extent of declaring
that the intellect is deadened and rendered useless by
the parrot-like cramming of the Vedic hymns.² Kings
of this age were more disposed to extend their
patronage to poets, who could compliment them by
composing neat poems in their honour,³ than to Vedic

1. See ante, p. 147.
2. नानुवाकहता बुद्धिर्व्यवहारक्षमा भवेत् ।
   अनुवाकहता या तु न सा सर्वत्रगामिनी ॥ Śukra, III, 261
3. The Vedic Brahmanas are sarcastically described by the
   door-keepers of king Bhoja as follows:—राजमाषनिभैर्दन्तैः कटिविन्यस्त-
   पाणयः । द्वारि तिष्ठन्ति राजेन्द्र छान्दसाः श्लोकशत्रवः ॥ They complain
   P. T. O.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 151
Brahmanas, who could recite hymns, which neither
they themselves nor their hearers could understand.
New branches of learning like philosophy and belles
letters also appealed more powerfully to the intellect
and emotions of the rising generation. In spite of these
adverse and discouraging factors Vaidika Brahmanas
continued to address themselves to the almost
thankless task of memorising the vast Vedic literature,
which could not have been preserved but for their
devotion to duty.
An age of Specialisation : We have already
mentioned the new branches of study that came into
prominence during the preceding period. The present
age made its own contribution to the march of
knowledge by further developing astronomy, astrology,
poetics, classical Sanskrit literature, Dharmaśāstra
(sacred and secular law), logic, and the different
systems of orthodox and heterodox philosophy. As
the help of paper, printing and cheap books was not
available for the preservation and propagation of
knowledge, the age naturally emphasised on speciali-
sation, which gave a great impetus to the development
of the different branches of knowledge.
The Ascendancy of Sanskrit : During the earlier
centuries of this period, upto c. 300 A. D., some
kings like the Sātavāhanas, the Ikshwākus
and the Pallavas had championed the cause of
Prakrit and directed that vernaculars alone should
be used even in their official and public documents.
As however the period advanced, the attraction of
(Continued from the last page.)
to Kālidāsa about their neglect as follows :—अस्माकं समग्रवेदविदामपि
भोजः किमपि नार्पयति । भवादृशां हि यथेष्टं दत्ते । ततोऽस्माभिः कवित्व-
विधानधियात्रागतम् । Kālidāsa then helps them. Bhojaprabandha,
v. 86 and following.

152 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
Sanskrit became so irresistible that some kings like the
Guptas went to the extent of ordering the use of that
language even in their harems¹. Prakrits ceased to
be used for public documents and even the Buddhists
and the Jains disregarded the advice of the founders
of their religions and began to compose works in
Sanskrit. The revival of Sanskrit during this period
produced results more or less similar to those brought
about in Europe by the discovery and study of the
classics during the time of the Renaissance. All the
attention of the educated classes was devoted to the
cultivation of Sanskrit. This led to the neglect of
vernaculars through which alone the masses could be
approached. This eventually tended to confine educa-
tion only to higher classes.
Preliminary Sanskrit Course : The study of the
different branches of knowledge that were flourishing
in this age was preceded by a preliminary course in
Sanskrit. After the Upanayana ceremony at about the
the age of 8, all students used to memorise a few
important Vedic hymns necessary for their daily or
ceremonial needs. Then they used to devote four or
five years to the study of elementary Sanskrit grammar
and literature. At about the age of 13 or 14, the
student used to be able to understand Sanskrit works
on subjects like logic, philosophy, poetics, astronomy
and mathematics. He then used to select one of these
subjects for specialisation and devote about ten years
to its study.
Popularity of Grammar and Astrology : Among
the subjects cultivated during this period, the courses
of advanced grammar and astronomy-cum-astrology
were very popular, as attested to both by Yuan

1. Kāvyamīmāṁsā, p. 50.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 153
Chwang and Alberuni. The demand for experts in
grammar was as keen during this age as the demand
for the teachers trained in English is today. Every
school for higher education had to engage several
grammarians in order to give the necessary instructions
in Sanskrit language, which was the key subject.
The age believed in astrology and astrologers were
in great demand throughout the country for preparing
and interpreting almanacs and prognosticating future
events. The royal courts also used to engage the
services of several astrologers.
The Course in Sanskrit Literature. The
students of this subject were naturally required first
to complete their course in grammar and kosha
(vocabulary) and then enjoined a study of some
famous authors like Kālidāsa, Bhartṛihari or Bāṇa.
Particular attention was paid to prosody and poetics,
and students were expected not only to understand
the classical authors, but also to compose fairly good
poems imitating their style. In order to get a general
knowledge of the culture of the race, they were
also required to study the epics, the Purāṇas and
traditional stories. They were further trained to be
good debators; the ability to defend one's own
position in learned assemblies and the capacity to
compose a good poem in a very short time were
regarded as the most important criteria of good
scholarship.
The Courses in Smritis and Puranas : Almost as
popular as the courses in grammar and astrology
were the courses in Purāṇas and Smṛitis whose hold
over the popular mind during this age was almost
as great as that of the Vedic literature in the
earlier periods. Popular Hindu religion had greatly
changed its complexion during this period and its

154 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch
theories and practices could be ascertained only from
Smṛitis and Purāṇas, which therefore had to be
mastered even by the village priest. The courses in
these subjects prescribed a good mastery of Sanskrit
grammar and classical Sanskrit literature and a special
study of select Sūtras, Smṛitis and Purāṇas. More
emphasis was laid on understanding the meaning of the
works concerned than on committing them to memory.
Usually the students of Smṛitis and Purāṇas took the
help of a manuscript when expounding their contents ;
there was no prejudice against utilising the art of
writing for preserving them.
Courses in Logic and Philosophy : The age we
are reviewing was reverberating with controversies
among the followers of Hinduism, Buddhism and
Jainism. Within the fold of Hinduism itself, the
followers of Sāṅkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Mīmāṁsā and
Vedānta were contending for supremacy. It was but
natural that these controversies should have given an
impetus to the study of metaphysics. After getting a
preliminary grounding in grammar and literature, the
students of the subject used to select one of the systems
of philosophy for specialisation and master its most
advanced and difficult works. The study of philo-
sophy presupposed a study of logic during this period ;
so students of philosophy used to devote considerable
time to the study of logic also. The young graduate
in philosophy was however expected not only to
expound and defend his own system but also to
attack and refute those of his opponents. The course
therefore included a comparative study of the
contending systems of metaphysics. Hindu philo-
sophers like Gauḍapāda and Śaṅkarāchārya and

1. Kāvyamīmāṁsā, pp. 49-50.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 155
Buddhist scholars like Nāgārjuna and Vasubandhu
used to master the systems of their opponents as
well. In a famous philosophical college situated in a
sylvan retreat in the Vindhya mountain presided
over by Divākarasena, a Brahmana convert to
Buddhism, students of Hinduism, Buddhism and
Śvetāmbara and Digambara Jainism studied together
side by side under the same principal.¹ Such an
arrangement naturally presupposes a comparative
study of the rival systems leading to the broadening
of the outlook and the deepening of the scholarship of
the average student of the institution.
Courses for Laymen in Buddhist Colleges : For
reasons already explained at p. 72, Buddhist monastic
colleges began to take up the education of the laymen
also from about the beginning of the Christian era. The
courses prescribed for them were not radically different
from those obtaining under sister institutions working
under the aegis of Hinduism. Students started with a
study of Sanskrit grammar and literature, which lasted
for seven or eight years. They were also given some
grounding in Pāli ; as pious Buddhists, they had to
master some passages from the Pāli canon. At about
the age of 15 or 16, their higher education commenced
Those who wanted to specialise in Sanskrit literature
Dharmaśāstra, astrology-cum-astronomy, medicine
or works on polity and administration used to follow
practically the same course as was in vogue in the
Hindu colleges of the period. Those however who
wanted to specialise in logic or philosophy used to
select works by Buddhist authors on these subject
like Hetuvidyā, Abhidharmaśāstra, Nyāyānusāraśāstra
etc. The followers of the Hīnayāna school used to

1. Harshacharit, Chap. VIII.

156 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
specialise in Tripiṭakas and other early works of
orthodox Buddism, whereas those of the Mahāyāna
school used to study the works of their famous
scholars like Nāgārjuna, Vasubandhu and Dharmakīrti.
Besides mastering their own works on philosophy, the
Buddhist scholars used to study Hindu works on
metaphysics as well.
Courses for Monks : The curriculum prescribed
for the monk scholar was naturally somewhat different.
It did not include any special study of secular sciences
like poetics, literature or astrology, but was concerned
principally with theological subjects. For ten years
after his admission as a novice, the monk-student was
under the direct guidance and control of his preceptor,
who used to initiate him in the study of Pāli and
Sanskrit. When these languages were properly
mastered, a thorough study of the sacred texts, (the
Tripiṭakas,) was started. When this was over, relatively
recent works on Buddhist religion and philosophy
were mastered. Hindu systems of religion, logic and
philosophy were then carefully studied in order to meet
the Hindu opponent on his own ground. It is
interesting to note that Yuan Chwang, who had under-
taken the arduous and perilous journey to India
primarily for studying Buddhist scriptures, spent two
fifth the period of his stay in India in studying Sanskrit
works on Hinduism. The education of the novice
did not terminate with his admission to the Order as
a full-fledged monk. For, the Buddhist monk was
expected to be a lifelong student like the Hindu
Naishṭhika Brahmachārin.
Selection of Text-books : We have no definite
information about the text-books prescribed for the
various courses in different institutions during different

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 157
centuries. These must have gone on changing in
course of time when better and more up-to-date books
written by competent authorities became available.
The selection of text books was usually governed by
considerations of merit alone. An author had to submit
his work to a synod of scholars at a famous centre of
learning like Pāṭalīputra or Benares¹, and if it was
found to be a work of merit by that body, it received
its imprimateur, which helped its acceptance and
spread in provincial towns. It should be however
noted that no pecuniary gain was likely to accrue to
an author by his book being prescribed in several
institutions; for there was no press and copyright in
ancient India. The adoption of a work as a text
book in the schools of a province however increased
the reputation of its author, and we sometimes come
across writers adopting rather questionable means to
get their books accepted. Ugrabhūti, the teacher of
king Anaṅgapāla of the Punjab (c. 1010–c. 1020) is said
to have induced his royal pupil to distribute two lakhs
of dirhams (= about Rs. 60,000) among the Pandits of
Kashmir in order to overcome successfully their
reluctance to accept his new work on grammar called
Śishya-hitā-vṛitti². Such cases however were probably
few. Usually books prescribed in a particular school
were those in vogue at the centre where the principal
and teachers of the school were educated. Hindus,
Buddhists and Jains would often prefer works written
by authors of their own persuasion in the case of
a subject like logic, which was cultivated by all schools.

1. Pāṇini is reported to have come all the way to Pāṭalīputra
   from Śalātura in N. W. F. P, in order to get his famous grammar
   approved by the synod at that famous capital. Śaṅkarāchārya came
   to Benares from Malabar in order to seek the imprimateur of the
   Pandits of that place over his philosophical works.
2. Sachau, Alberuni, Vol. I, pp. 185-6.

158 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
METHOD OF TEACHING AND STUDY
General Conditions of the Times : Before des-
cribing and commenting upon the method of teaching
and study current in ancient India, it is necessary that
we should familiarise ourselves with the general
conditions of the age. In the beginning the art of
writing was unknown, and even when it was invented,
it was not utilised for preserving and transmitting the
Vedic literature, which for several centuries was
the main topic of study. It was further held as
imperatively necessary that the canonical literature
should be memorised in the most meticulous way ;
there should be no possibility of the mistake even
of a single accent. The service of the art of writing
was no doubt utilised for preserving and teaching
non-Vedic literature, but owing to the absence of
paper and printing, books could be within the reach
of the rich only. Being written on birch leaves,
they were fragile as well as costly. The average
student could therefore not have his own copy of the
text-book ;¹ even the desire to possess one was regarded
as a symptom of indolence.² Under such circum-
stances, extensive use of a library was altogether
impracticable, nor could the help of visual instruction
through the help of charts and pictures be possible.
Oral instruction was the only available method of
teaching and it was the cheapest and the most
accurate.

1. गीती शीघ्री शिरःकंपी तथा लिखितपाठकः ।
   अनर्थज्ञोऽल्पकण्ठश्च षडेते पाठकाधमाः ॥
   Pāṇinīya-śikshā, 32.
2. द्यूतं पुस्तकशुश्रूषा नाटकासक्तिरेव च ।
   स्त्रियस्तन्द्री च निद्रा च विद्याविघ्नकराणि षट् ॥
   Nārada in S. C. S. p. 52.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 159
Method of Teaching in the Vedic Schools :
Education therefore was for a long time imparted
through the oral lesson, without the medium of a
book. This method persisted in the Vedic schools
down to recent times. The teacher used to pronounce
only two words of the Vedic stanza at a time, which
the student was asked to recite with exact intonation
and accent. The number of words was reduced to
one, if the expression happened to be a compound
one.¹ If the student had any difficulty in the
matter, it was explained to him. When a whole
verse was thus taught to one student, he was dis-
missed and the same process was repeated with the
next one. Necessarily every student used to
receive individual attention under this system. The
method of teaching was direct and personal and
not even a text-book intervened between the teacher
and the student.
Method of Teaching in non-Vedic Schools : The
above method of teaching was extensively followed
in other branches of learning also, no doubt with
suitable modifications, when it was deemed necessary
that certain texts should be memorised by the student.
Small portions of the text were recited and explained
by the teacher to the students; when they had
understood them, each one was required to commit
them to memory. It was in this way that students
used to learn important books like the grammar of
Pāṇini, the dictionary of Amara, the law-book of
Manu or the work on poetics by Mammaṭa, which had
to be committed to memory. Books being both
costly and fragile, there was no other efficient
alternative method of study, if it was desired that

1. Ṛik-prātiśākhya, Paṭala, XV.

160 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch..
students should aquire a mastery in their subjects,
which should stand them in good stead throughout
their lives. Learning in ancient times had to be at
the tip of the tongue ; a scholar asking for time to
consult his notes or books could carry no prestige.¹
The highest ambition of an author of even the 12th
century A. D. was, not that his work may adorn the
shelves of the libraries of the learned, but that it
may shine as an ornament on their neck, i. e. it should
be memorised by them.²
Importance of Recitation and Recapitulation :
Recitation and recapitulation therefore formed an
important part in the daily routine of the student life.
The home-work, which the student did in his spare
time, did not consist of written exercises ; it merely
amounted to the recitation and recapitulation of lessons
learnt already. Every day students were required to
spend a part of their time in the school in jointly
reciting a portion of the work they had committed to
memory. As a result of this training, the memory
of the average student in ancient India was very
highly developed ; he could perform feats of memor-
ising which now we may regard as impossible. I-tsing
rather obscurely refers to certain interesting aids to
memory owing to which, after the practice of ten or
fifteen days, the student felt ‘his thoughts rising
like a fountain and could commit to memory whatever
he had but once heard’. ‘This is far from a myth,’
१. पुस्तकस्था तु या विद्या परहस्तगतं धनम् ।
कार्यकाले समुत्पन्ने न सा बिद्या न तद्धनम् ॥
S. R. B., p. 168 v. 413.
२. तेन प्रीत्या विरचितमिदं काव्यमव्याजकान्तं ।
कर्णाटेन्दोर्जगति विदुषां कण्ठभूषात्वमेयात् ॥
Vikramānkadevacharit, XVIII 102.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 161
says the Chinese traveller, 'for I have myself met
such men.¹ In an age when books were very rare,
it was but meet that great emphasis should have
been laid on the development of memory.
Special devices to help the memory : Though
the memory of the average student was much better
trained and developed than is the case now, the
authors and educationalists left no stone unturned to
lighten its burden. Ancient Indian educationalists
had realised that rhime makes an appeal to æsthetic
sensibility and facilitates the task of memorising.
They therefore decided to utilise its help in the teaching
work by composing text books in verse. Even
dictionaries and elementary books on grammar were
composed in verse. The development of the Sūtra
style, where conclusions are stated in short and pithy
sentences, is also due to the exigencies of the schools
and colleges, the students of which had to rely more
on their memory than on books and notes for recalling
the contents of the works once studied by them.
Erroneous Impression about Cramming : The fact
that the modern Vedic Pandit does not know the
meaning of the hymns he recites with flawless accuracy,
has led to an erroneous impression that mere cramming
was encouraged by the ancient Indian educational
system. Such however was not the case. We have
already shown how for many centuries even Vedic
scholars could expound the meaning of the hymns
they had committed to memory ; it was owing to
the growth of the Vedic literature and the imperative
necessity of committing the whole of it to memory,
that it was reluctantly decided to assign the memo-

1. P. 183.
   11

162 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
rising of the Vedic texts to one section of Brahmanas
and their exposition to another. It had become
humanly impossible to expect both the tasks to be
done by the same individual.
The Place of Exposition in Teaching : It is no
doubt true that some Sūtra works like those on
grammar and philosophy, which were committed to
memory, are so cryptic as to be mostly unintelligible
by themselves. They were written in that style
merely to lighten the burden on the student's memory.
Their teaching was accompanied by extensive lectures,
some of which used to be later embodied in com-
mentaries. The teaching of the important works on
philosophy, logic and poetics was hardly possible
without exhaustive discussions pertaining to the views
expounded and controverted. In these discussions
there was an unravelling of the subject matter,
distinctions and contra-distinctions were drawn, and
an effort was made to show the reasonableness of one's
position and the errors of the opponent¹. The
students of the various schools of orthodox and
heterodox systems of religion and philosophy reading
under Divākarasena used to listen to the exposition
of their respective systems, deliberate on their natures,
discuss their features, raise doubts on obscure themes,
determine for themselves the main outlines and enter
into discussion with the opponents². The same
procedure must have been followed in other colleges
of philosophy. Reasoning and analysis formed the
crux of the method of study and teaching. The
medium of instruction in higher studies was naturally

1. Mil. Pan. Vol. I, p. 46.
2. Harshacharit, Chap. VIII.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 163
Sanskrit; when however Prakrits and vernaculars
developed, their help was also occasionally taken¹.
Testimony of Chinese Pilgrims: Indian teachers
were past masters in the art of explanation and
exposition; students from distant countries like Korea
and China used to brave the dangers of the perilous
journey to India, not because they wanted to learn by
rote the scriptures of their religion, but because they
were anxious to hear the exposition of obscure
metaphysical passages which could be heard nowhere
else. What Yuan Chwang valued in his Indian
teachers was not their capacity to recite the sacred
texts, but their remarkable ability in explaining obscure
passages and offering illuminative suggestions on
doubtful points.² About his Indian gurus, I-tsing says,
'I have been always very glad that I had an opportunity
of aquiring knowledge from them personally, which I
*should otherwise have never possessed.'*³
The Place of Debates: Since early times, debates
and discussions have always played an important part
in the literary training of students. The Vedic
literature refers to such literary combats and describes
how the victors were suitably honoured (R. V., X. 71).
This Vedic tradition continued throughout the later
history. Śāstrārthas or learned debates were constantly
held in colleges where students of literature, poetics,
philosophy and logic were called upon to defend their
own propositions and attack those of their opponents.
The training in debates made students ready-witted
and developed their powers of speech.

1. संस्कृतैः प्राकृतैर्वाक्यैर्यः शिष्यमनुरूपतः ।
   देशभाषायुपायैश्च बोधयेत्स गुरुः स्मृतः ॥
   Vishnudharma quoted by V.M.S., p. 72 (Jivanand's editio
2. Beal, Life, pp. 76, 154, 160
3. P. 185

164 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
Other Devices in Teaching : The use of parables
was often made in expounding obscure principles, as
would appear from the plot of the Hitopadeśa and the
Pañchatantra, where principles of politics are taught
under the guise of telling stories about animals. The
dialogue method was followed by many a philosopher,
as would appear from the evidence of the Upanishads
and the Buddhist Sūtras.¹ It enabled the teacher to
ascertain the reactions in the student's mind to his
own observations. The value of comparison and
observation was also realised by many teachers who
used to develop the power of understanding of dull
students by asking them to carefully observe new facts
and compare them with those already known.²
Individual Attention : We have already shown
at pp. 82-3 how the classes in ancient India were
usually small ones, consisting of not more than 15
or 20 students. It was therefore possible to give
individual attention to each student. This was one
of the strongest points in the ancient Indian system
of education. Lectures to large classes of 100 or
200 students, which are unintelligible to some,
superfluous to others and partially useful to the rest,
were unknown in ancient India. Students could not
afford to go to the class room without thorough
preparation. There was a daily examination of every
student and no new lesson was given until the old
one was thoroughly mastered.³ There were no annual
examinations and mass promotions at fixed intervals.

1. It is interesting to note that many of the commentaries are
   in the form of a dialogue between the teacher and the student. The
   earlier part advances a view such as a student may be expected to hold
   as plausible, the later part contains its correction or refutation, as
   may be done by a teacher in his lecture.
2. Jātaka No. 124.
3. Mil Pan., I, p. 18.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 165
Clever students were not compelled to mark time for
their dull companions as under the modern system
of education. The educational system ministered to
the needs and individual capactity of each student.
If a student was intelligent and industrious, he could
finish his education much earlier than is possible in
modern times. The idle and careless student had not
as pleasant a prospect of a merry college life as he
has in the present age. Yuan Chwang says, ‘When
disciples, intelligent and accute, are addicted to idle
shirking, teachers doggedly persevere in repeating
instructions until their training is finished’.¹ The
Chinese traveller was very favourably impressed by
the capacity of Indian teachers to rouse their students
to activity and urge them to progress.
Monitorial System: In order to make personal
supervision effective, the cooperation and help of
advanced students were enlisted in the cause of
education. They used to guide the studies of the
juniors under the general supervision of their teachers.
About the Valabhi college students, I-tsing observes
that they used to pass two or three years, ‘instructed
by their teachers and instructing others’.² This
system also obtained at Taxila; for instance, the
Kuru prince Sutasoma, who aquired proficiency
earlier, was entrusted with the teaching of his brother
prince, the heir apparent of Benares.³ Senior
students at Taxila were often put in charge of their
schools during the temporary absence of their
teachers.⁴ This method of entrusting teaching work
to brilliant students had a great educational value.

1. Watters, I, p. 160.
2. P. 177.
3. Sutasoma-Jātaka, No. 537.
4. E. g., Sukha-vihārī Jātaka, No. 10.

166 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
It placed a high incentive before the student world.
It afforded opportunities to intelligent students to
learn the art of teaching, and thus indirectly per-
formed the same function as the Teachers' Training
Colleges discharge today. It increased the efficiency
and decreased the cost of the school by affording
intelligent and free assistance to the teacher. It is
well known that Bell and Lancaster had based
their Monitorial System on what one of them had
observed in contemporary Indian schools.
Conclusion : It will be seen from the above
discussion that the method of teaching followed in
ancient India was on the whole the best suited for
an age, which did not enjoy the advantages of paper
and printing. It developed the powers of memory,
a faculty which is being sadly neglected in modern
times. It did not however encourage cramming,
bacause the texts that were memorised were well
understood by students. Reflection and analysis was
also encouraged especially in the case of those
students who had taken logic, philosophy, poetics or
literature. Lucid exposition was a forte of Indian
teachers, for which they were well known all over Asia
during the first millennium of the Christian era.
Debates were a normal feature of higher education.
Individual attention was paid to the needs of
students, which naturally ensured good results.
The student must however have intelligence.¹
Hindu educationalists have pointed out that the best

1. वितरति गुरुः प्राज्ञे विद्यां यथैव तथा जडे ।
   न च खलु तयोर्ज्ञाने शक्तिं करोत्यपहन्ति वा ॥
   भवति च तयोर्भूयान्भेदः फलं प्रति तद्यथा ।
   प्रभवति मणिर्बिम्बोद्ग्राहे मणिर्न मृदां चयः ॥
   Uttararāmachairt, Act, II.