प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 139.
AGRAHĀRA VILLAGES AS CENTRES OF
LEARNING.
What is an Agrahara Village? : On auspicious
occasions, kings used to invite learned Brahmanas,
settle them in villages and assign their revenues to
them for their maintenance. Such villages were called
Agrahāra villages, and they naturally became centres
of learning where higher education was imparted free
in different branches of Sanskrit studies. We shall give
here information about two such Agrahāra villages,
which were typical of their class.
Kadiyur Agrahara : The village of Kādiyur, modern
Kalas, in Dharwar district in Karnatak, was made an
Agrahāra village in the 10th century by the Rāshtrakūṭa
administration, and assigned to 200 Brahmanas, who
were well versed in Vedas, grammar, Purāṇas, logic
works on polity, the science of literary composition
and the art of writing commentaries.¹ The village
was famous as an efficient centre of education and
its Brahmana residents naturally were proud of its
reputation. It may be pointed out that the
educational activity of this Brahmana centre was not
confined to the Vedic studies only; poetics, grammar,
logic, Purāṇas and the political science were included
in the curriculum. An endowment had been also
received for the salaries of some teachers. A free
feeding house was maintained in the village; it was
most probably intended for the poor students studying
in the local institution.
Sarvajnapura Agrahara : Sarvajñapura (modern
Arsikere in Hassan District, Mysore) was another
Agrahāra village, which, as its name would indicate,

1. E. I., XIII. p. 317.

140 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
was a famous centre of learning. An inscription
discovered at this place gives us a graphic description
of its literary and pedagogic activities. "In some
of its streets the Brahmanas were reading the Vedas,
Śāstras and six systems of philosophy; every group
of Brahmanas was either reading the Vedas or
engaged in listening to the exposition of some higher
science, or carrying on ceaseless discussion on logic,
or joyously reciting the Purāṇas or settling the meaning
of the Smṛitis, drama or poetry. All the Brahmanas
of Sarvajñapura were devoted to study, teaching and
listening to the dictates of religion and morality."¹
Numerous centres of Higher Education: The
above two Agrahāra villages were but typical of their
class. As a rule in every Agrahāra village free
instructions were given in different branches of
Sanskrit learning by the Brahmana donees in return
for the provision made for their livelihood by the state
or sociey.² Sometimes non-Agrahāra villages also,
like Bāhur, 15 miles south of Pondichery, were
important centres of higher education receiving grants
of the revenues of several villages because they were
famous centres of well-known scholars, hailing from
all parts of the country.³ Agrahāra villages and
endowed temples and monasteries were fairly
numerous in ancient India; there used to be at least
two or three of them in an area equal to the modern
district. We may therefore well conclude that

1. E. C., V, p. 144.
2. Cf. एतेषु किलाग्रहारेषु केचिजपन्ति । अपरे पाठयन्ति ।
   केचित्पठन्ति । अन्ये तत्त्वविद्यामुपदिशन्ति । इतरे अध्यापयन्ति । पश्य
   पश्य । Keralābharaṇam.
3. E. I., XVIII, p. 14.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 141
centres for higher education were more numerous in
medieval times (c. 600-1300 A. D.) than they are
today in modern India.
Tols : Before concluding this chapter, it will be
necessary to refer to Tols or Sanskrit schools which
are still fairly numerous in Bengal, Bihar and United
Provinces. From very early times, Tols have enjoyed
grants of land, on which their teachers and pupils
subsisted. These grants were augmented in value and
new ones were created when the Zemindars felt
themselves secure by the Permanent Settlement of
Cornwalis¹. Where there was no specific endowment,
the village Pandit used to arrange for the free boarding,
lodging and clothing of his students by collecting the
necessary funds by raising subscriptions at chief fairs
and festivals, and from rich charitable persons. Tols
thus are a variety of the Agrahāra type of educational
institutions.
The classes are usually held in a thatched house.
As a rule, each Tol enrolls about 25 students, who
are accommodated in mud huts built round the school
house. Study courses usually extend over six to
eight years and enable the students to appear for the
Praveśikā or Admission examination in Sanskrit.
Tradition of free Education : It is indeed
noteworthy that such tradition of free education should
have persisted in spite of foreign rule of several
centuries. Learned Brahmanas in India have always
been anxious to impart education free to deserving
students irrespective of their own financial condition.
This tradition exists even today in ancient centres of

1. Report of the Bengal Provincial Committee, Education
   Commission, 1882.

142 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
Sanskrit education like Benares, Nasik, Wai and
Nadia. The conclusion therefore seems to be
irresistible that in the ancient and medieval periods of
Indian history, every student, howsoever poor he may
have been, could get the highest education free,
provided he was willing, if necessary, to do some
manual or menial work for his teacher. Poor parents
had not to worry about the educational expenses; their
sons could either find admission to free boarding
houses or maintain themselves by begging their food
daily, which was regarded as the most honorable
means of livelihood.

Chapter VI.
HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION.:
Curriculum, method of teaching and examinations.
Subjects and methods of study in the early Vedic period- And in
the later Vedic period-The method of study changes at c. 1000 B. C.
New topics of study-Combination of liberal and useful education-
Vedic studies in the 1st millennium A D —An age of specialisation-
Ascendancy of Sanskrit-Courses in grammar, astrology, literature,
Smritis, Purāṇas, logic and philosophy-Courses for laymen and monks
in Buddhist colleges-Selection of text-books.
Method of teaching and study-Books normally not available,
hence the oral method of instruction-Importance of recitation and
recapitulation-Texts memorised bnt not crammed-Great importance
attached to exposition and debate-Individual attention-Help of
monitors-No annual or final examinations-No degrees and diplomas-
Competitive element kept within limit.
Introductory : The history of ancient Indian
education is spread over several millennia and we
therefore naturally find considerable changes taking
place in the curricula in the course of centuries. This
is but natural ; for the curriculum is intimately
connected with the achievements and aspirations of a
people. When the outlook on life changes or when
new branches of knowledge are developed, extensive
changes become inevitable in the curriculum followed
in schools and colleges. In the present chapter, we
shall indicate the main topics of study on the literary
side, point out the changes in the curricula that took
place in the different ages, discuss the methods of
study and teaching and ascertain what importance
was attached to examinations.
EARLY VEDIC AGE (C. upto 1500 B. C.)
Subjects of Study : The Vedic literature naturally

144 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
formed the main topic of study in this period. Besides
the sacred hymns, there were also some historical
poems, ballads and hero-songs¹ in existence, which
were also committed to memory by the young scholars
of the day, as they often helped the elucidation of
many references contained in the Vedic hymns.
Students were required to master the principles of
prosody and encouraged to develop the powers of
versification. Those who intended to follow the
priestly profession had to study the details of the
rituals associated with the hymns they had committed
to memory. The study of elementary geometry,
the knowledge of which was necessary for the proper
construction of sacrificial altars, was also included
in the Vedic course. A knowledge of astronomy,
which had enabled the age to find out the difference
between the lunar and solar months, was also imparted.
Grammar and etymology did not trouble the students
of this age because they were yet to be developed.
Vedic studies usually began at about the age of nine or
ten and Initiation Ceremony known as Upanayana was
performed at their commencement. The nature,
details, and educational significance of this ceremony
will be found discussed in Appendix I, B.
The Method of Study : Vedic hymns were studied
in this period as specimens of literature to be
understood, appreciated, imitated and even excelled
if posssible. New hymns² were being composed and
the authors of some of them claimed that they were

1. Itihāsa, Purāṇa and Nārāśaṁsī Gāthā are mentioned as early
   as the Atharvaveda ; XV. 1.
2. The very second stanza of the Ṛigveda, for instance, refers to
   the earlier and later poets of the Vedic collection ; cf. अग्निः पूर्वे-
   भिर्ऋषिभिरीड्यो नूतनैर्वा उत । I. 1. 2.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 145
superior to the compositions of the earlier poets.¹
It is interesting to note that some of the poems of
the later poets were selected for inclusion in the Vedic
collection when it was made in a subsequent age.
As new hymns were being composed by contemporary
authors, it is but natural that they were not yet
regarded as revealed. It was therefore not at all felt
necessary that they should be committed to memory
so meticulously as not to render possible a single
mistake of accent or intonation. Professional priests
must of course have committed the hymns very
thoroughly to memory in order to ensure facility in
their use during the performance of the different
rituals. But the mass of people consisting of the
warriors, agriculturists and artisans used to learn by
heart only some select Vedic hymns, and these
too in the same way in which the songs of medieval
saints are memorised by the Hindu masses today.
More effort was made to understand the meaning of
the hymns than to remember their exact wording.
LATER VEDIC AGE
(C. 1500 to 1000 B. C.)
The Subjects of Study : The mass of the Vedic
hymns was classified in this period and as a result,
the Ṛigveda, the Yajurveda, the Sāmaveda and the
Atharvaveda came into existence. This led to
specialisation in Vedic studies and facilitated the
growth of a new type of literature, known as
Brāhmaṇa literature, which devoted itself to the
exposition of a number of important dogmas, theories

1. नवं नु स्तोममग्नये दिवःश्येनाय जीजनम् । वस्वः कुविद्वनाति नः ॥
   V. 15. 4.
   Cf. also R. V., VII. 35. 14; III. 32. 13.
   10

146 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
and practices connected with Vedic sacrifices.
Sacrificial rituals became very complex and compli-
cated in this period and the professional priests had
to devote several years in mastering their details and
intricacies. The study of astronomy, geometry and
prosody contiuned to progress in this period. The
development of the sciences of grammar and etymology
started in this age and manuals on these subjects were
included in the curriculum.
The Method of Study : The Vedic hymns were
being gradually differentiated from the Vedic language
and it was felt that the sacred literature should be
preserved in its pristine form and purity, and should
not be allowed to change with the spoken idiom.
Vedic scholars of this period began to insist that
Vedic hymns should be carefully committed to
memory in their precise traditional intonation and
accents. Students were not at liberty to change a
difficult archaic word for a simple current one. The
differentiation of the spoken dialect from the Vedic
language raised new problems of interpretation and
the age sought to solve them by preparing a list of
difficult Vedic words and expressions. which were
carefully expounded to students. Vedic students were
expected not only to memorise the Vedic hymns, but
also to explain their meaning. Ridicule was poured
on them if they failed to expound what they had
learnt by heart.¹ Learned discussions were a normal
and important feature of the student life and young
scholars were very anxious to come out successful
in them.²

1. स्थाणुरयं भारहारः किलाभूदधीत्य वेदं न विजानाति योऽर्थम्।
   Nir., I. 18 See also, ibid, 1. 19.
2. A. V., VII. 12, 18; II. 27.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 147
THE AGE OF THE UPANISHADS AND THE
SŪTRAS
(First millennium B. C.)
VEDIC STUDIES; METHOD CHANGED: The
Vedic literature began to be universally regarded
as revealed in this period and that honour was gradually
extended to the Brāhmaṇas¹ and the Upanishads
also. Vedic schools had to perform the onerous task
of preserving this great and growing literature. The
art of writing was known by this time, but its aid
was not taken for this purpose, as it was believed that
it would be irreligious to do so². The theory that the
slightest mistake in the recitation of the Vedic hymns
would not only prevent the realisation of the expected
reward, but would also bring about a disaster on the
reciter³, gained ground in this period and necessitated
the devotion of a large part of the energy of the rising
generation to the task of the accurate memorising
of the Vedic literature. Extraordinary precautions
were taken to prevent the corruption of the Vedic text
by devising the pada-pāṭha,⁴ krama-pāṭha, jaṭā-pāṭha

1. The prose literature devoted to the task of explaining the
   rituals, legends and knotty points about the sacrifices enjoined in the
   Vedic hymns was known by this name. It should not be mistaken
   with the members of the Brahmana caste.
2. Cf. वेदानां लेखकाश्चैव सर्वे निरयगामिनः ।
3. मंत्रो हीनः स्वरतो वर्णतो वा मिथ्याप्रयुक्तो न तमर्थमाह ।
   स वाग्वज्रो यजमानं हिनस्ति यथेन्द्रशत्रुः स्वरतोऽपराधात् ।
4. The pada-pāṭha required the students to memorise each
   word in the Vedic hymns separately after restoring it to its original
   form. Supposing a, b, and c were the three opening words of a hymn,
   the krama-pāṭha recited them as ab, bc, etc., the jaṭā-pāṭha as ab, ba,
   ab, etc., and the ghana-pāṭha as ab, ba, abc, cba, abc. The reader will
   now get some idea of the onerousness of the task of memorising
   these pāṭhas.

148 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
and ghana-pāṭha, and all these had to be committed to
memory by those who desired to be regarded as
experts in the Vedic lore. This further increased the
burden on the memory. As centuries rolled on, it
became more and more difficult for the Vedic expert
to memorise this extensive and growing literature and
also to understand its meaning ; for the spoken dialect
was becoming more and more differentiated from the
Vedic language. It was therefore decided towards
the end of this period that some Vedic scholars should
devote their energies to the mechanical memorising
of this extensive literature with a view to prevent its
loss, while others should address themselves to the
problem of its interpretation by studying commentaries,
etymology, lexicography, etc. But for this differentia-
tion of function, the extensive Vedic literature could
not have been preserved for posterity. This arrange-
ment no doubt exposed some Brahmanas to the taunt
of being mere parrot-like reciters of the Vedic hymns.
It is gratifying to find that they did not mind it in the
wider interest of the preservation of the national
literature and culture.
New Topics of Study : The period under review
was the most creative era in the history of the Hindu
intellect ; it recorded remarkable achievements in
the realm of philosophy, sacred law, epic literature,
philology, grammar, astronomy and several fine and
useful arts like sculpture, medicine and shipbuilding.
On the one hand the development of these branches
naturally created a new fascination for the students
of the age, and on the other, the rise of the protestant
movements led by the Upanishadic, Jain and
Buddhist thinkers told on the popularity of the Vedic
religion and literature. The current language had
now become very widely differentiated from the

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 149
Vedic idiom and thus created a new difficulty in the
Vedic studies. As a combined consequence of all
these factors, Vedic studies fell into background
towards the end of this period and greater attention
began to be paid to the cultivation of the new
branches of learning referred to above.
Combination of Liberal and Useful Education :
Several references in the contemporary literature
indicate that an attempt was made in this period to
combine liberal with professional or useful education.
Graduates of this age are usually described as well
versed in the Vedas as well as in eighteen sippas, i. e.
practical arts and sciences.¹ These latter included
archery, military art, medicine, magic, snake charming,
conveyancing, administrative training, music, dancing,
painting, engineering, etc². It is of course clear that
no graduate could get mastery in all the Vedas as
well as in all the sippas as is suggested by some
passages; it is however clear from some references
in Jātakas that literary education was combined with
one of the useful professions referred to above in the
famous centres of education like Taxila. This practice
enabled the average literary student to stand on his
own legs.
THE AGE OF THE SMṚITIS, PURĀṆAS AND
NIBANDHAS.
(1st century A. D. to c. 1200 A. D.)
Vedic Studies : The Vedic studies fell further into
background during this period. A sufficient number of
Brahmanas however was always available to preserve

1. Chh. Up., VII. 1. 2. Mil. P. Vol. I. p ; 247
2. See Appendix IV

150 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
and transmit the Vedic literature to the generations
unborn. They used to do their work very thoroughly,
for the experts among them would memorise not only
the Vedic hymns, but also their pada-pāṭha krama-pāṭha,
_jaṭā-pāṭha and ghana-pāṭha._¹ They used to master the
details connected with the numerous Vedic sacrifices
also. Some of them used to study two, three or even
four Vedas and were therefore known as Dvivedins,
Trivedins, and Chaturvedins respectively. Many
donees of the copperplate grants of this period bear
these surnames; they could have become eligible for
them only by prolonged and almost life-long devotion to
the cause of Vedic studies. This devotion was almost
tragic; it did not bring any adequate pecuniary
compensation, and required them to memorise texts,
which not they, but others, could understand and
expound. The number of the Vedic scholars, devoting
themselves to the task of interpreting and expounding
Vedic hymns, dwindled down very considerably during
this period. Vedic studies therefore usually meant
the mere cramming of the sacred texts and were often
commented upon very adversely by some thinkers of
the age, some of whom went to the extent of declaring
that the intellect is deadened and rendered useless by
the parrot-like cramming of the Vedic hymns.² Kings
of this age were more disposed to extend their
patronage to poets, who could compliment them by
composing neat poems in their honour,³ than to Vedic

1. See ante, p. 147.
2. नानुवाकहता बुद्धिर्व्यवहारक्षमा भवेत् ।
   अनुवाकहता या तु न सा सर्वत्रगामिनी ॥ Śukra, III, 261
3. The Vedic Brahmanas are sarcastically described by the
   door-keepers of king Bhoja as follows:—राजमाषनिभैर्दन्तैः कटिविन्यस्त-
   पाणयः । द्वारि तिष्ठन्ति राजेन्द्र छान्दसाः श्लोकशत्रवः ॥ They complain
   P. T. O.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 151
Brahmanas, who could recite hymns, which neither
they themselves nor their hearers could understand.
New branches of learning like philosophy and belles
letters also appealed more powerfully to the intellect
and emotions of the rising generation. In spite of these
adverse and discouraging factors Vaidika Brahmanas
continued to address themselves to the almost
thankless task of memorising the vast Vedic literature,
which could not have been preserved but for their
devotion to duty.
An age of Specialisation : We have already
mentioned the new branches of study that came into
prominence during the preceding period. The present
age made its own contribution to the march of
knowledge by further developing astronomy, astrology,
poetics, classical Sanskrit literature, Dharmaśāstra
(sacred and secular law), logic, and the different
systems of orthodox and heterodox philosophy. As
the help of paper, printing and cheap books was not
available for the preservation and propagation of
knowledge, the age naturally emphasised on speciali-
sation, which gave a great impetus to the development
of the different branches of knowledge.
The Ascendancy of Sanskrit : During the earlier
centuries of this period, upto c. 300 A. D., some
kings like the Sātavāhanas, the Ikshwākus
and the Pallavas had championed the cause of
Prakrit and directed that vernaculars alone should
be used even in their official and public documents.
As however the period advanced, the attraction of
(Continued from the last page.)
to Kālidāsa about their neglect as follows :—अस्माकं समग्रवेदविदामपि
भोजः किमपि नार्पयति । भवादृशां हि यथेष्टं दत्ते । ततोऽस्माभिः कवित्व-
विधानधियात्रागतम् । Kālidāsa then helps them. Bhojaprabandha,
v. 86 and following.

152 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
Sanskrit became so irresistible that some kings like the
Guptas went to the extent of ordering the use of that
language even in their harems¹. Prakrits ceased to
be used for public documents and even the Buddhists
and the Jains disregarded the advice of the founders
of their religions and began to compose works in
Sanskrit. The revival of Sanskrit during this period
produced results more or less similar to those brought
about in Europe by the discovery and study of the
classics during the time of the Renaissance. All the
attention of the educated classes was devoted to the
cultivation of Sanskrit. This led to the neglect of
vernaculars through which alone the masses could be
approached. This eventually tended to confine educa-
tion only to higher classes.
Preliminary Sanskrit Course : The study of the
different branches of knowledge that were flourishing
in this age was preceded by a preliminary course in
Sanskrit. After the Upanayana ceremony at about the
the age of 8, all students used to memorise a few
important Vedic hymns necessary for their daily or
ceremonial needs. Then they used to devote four or
five years to the study of elementary Sanskrit grammar
and literature. At about the age of 13 or 14, the
student used to be able to understand Sanskrit works
on subjects like logic, philosophy, poetics, astronomy
and mathematics. He then used to select one of these
subjects for specialisation and devote about ten years
to its study.
Popularity of Grammar and Astrology : Among
the subjects cultivated during this period, the courses
of advanced grammar and astronomy-cum-astrology
were very popular, as attested to both by Yuan

1. Kāvyamīmāṁsā, p. 50.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 153
Chwang and Alberuni. The demand for experts in
grammar was as keen during this age as the demand
for the teachers trained in English is today. Every
school for higher education had to engage several
grammarians in order to give the necessary instructions
in Sanskrit language, which was the key subject.
The age believed in astrology and astrologers were
in great demand throughout the country for preparing
and interpreting almanacs and prognosticating future
events. The royal courts also used to engage the
services of several astrologers.
The Course in Sanskrit Literature. The
students of this subject were naturally required first
to complete their course in grammar and kosha
(vocabulary) and then enjoined a study of some
famous authors like Kālidāsa, Bhartṛihari or Bāṇa.
Particular attention was paid to prosody and poetics,
and students were expected not only to understand
the classical authors, but also to compose fairly good
poems imitating their style. In order to get a general
knowledge of the culture of the race, they were
also required to study the epics, the Purāṇas and
traditional stories. They were further trained to be
good debators; the ability to defend one's own
position in learned assemblies and the capacity to
compose a good poem in a very short time were
regarded as the most important criteria of good
scholarship.
The Courses in Smritis and Puranas : Almost as
popular as the courses in grammar and astrology
were the courses in Purāṇas and Smṛitis whose hold
over the popular mind during this age was almost
as great as that of the Vedic literature in the
earlier periods. Popular Hindu religion had greatly
changed its complexion during this period and its

154 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch
theories and practices could be ascertained only from
Smṛitis and Purāṇas, which therefore had to be
mastered even by the village priest. The courses in
these subjects prescribed a good mastery of Sanskrit
grammar and classical Sanskrit literature and a special
study of select Sūtras, Smṛitis and Purāṇas. More
emphasis was laid on understanding the meaning of the
works concerned than on committing them to memory.
Usually the students of Smṛitis and Purāṇas took the
help of a manuscript when expounding their contents ;
there was no prejudice against utilising the art of
writing for preserving them.
Courses in Logic and Philosophy : The age we
are reviewing was reverberating with controversies
among the followers of Hinduism, Buddhism and
Jainism. Within the fold of Hinduism itself, the
followers of Sāṅkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Mīmāṁsā and
Vedānta were contending for supremacy. It was but
natural that these controversies should have given an
impetus to the study of metaphysics. After getting a
preliminary grounding in grammar and literature, the
students of the subject used to select one of the systems
of philosophy for specialisation and master its most
advanced and difficult works. The study of philo-
sophy presupposed a study of logic during this period ;
so students of philosophy used to devote considerable
time to the study of logic also. The young graduate
in philosophy was however expected not only to
expound and defend his own system but also to
attack and refute those of his opponents. The course
therefore included a comparative study of the
contending systems of metaphysics. Hindu philo-
sophers like Gauḍapāda and Śaṅkarāchārya and

1. Kāvyamīmāṁsā, pp. 49-50.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 155
Buddhist scholars like Nāgārjuna and Vasubandhu
used to master the systems of their opponents as
well. In a famous philosophical college situated in a
sylvan retreat in the Vindhya mountain presided
over by Divākarasena, a Brahmana convert to
Buddhism, students of Hinduism, Buddhism and
Śvetāmbara and Digambara Jainism studied together
side by side under the same principal.¹ Such an
arrangement naturally presupposes a comparative
study of the rival systems leading to the broadening
of the outlook and the deepening of the scholarship of
the average student of the institution.
Courses for Laymen in Buddhist Colleges : For
reasons already explained at p. 72, Buddhist monastic
colleges began to take up the education of the laymen
also from about the beginning of the Christian era. The
courses prescribed for them were not radically different
from those obtaining under sister institutions working
under the aegis of Hinduism. Students started with a
study of Sanskrit grammar and literature, which lasted
for seven or eight years. They were also given some
grounding in Pāli ; as pious Buddhists, they had to
master some passages from the Pāli canon. At about
the age of 15 or 16, their higher education commenced
Those who wanted to specialise in Sanskrit literature
Dharmaśāstra, astrology-cum-astronomy, medicine
or works on polity and administration used to follow
practically the same course as was in vogue in the
Hindu colleges of the period. Those however who
wanted to specialise in logic or philosophy used to
select works by Buddhist authors on these subject
like Hetuvidyā, Abhidharmaśāstra, Nyāyānusāraśāstra
etc. The followers of the Hīnayāna school used to

1. Harshacharit, Chap. VIII.

156 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
specialise in Tripiṭakas and other early works of
orthodox Buddism, whereas those of the Mahāyāna
school used to study the works of their famous
scholars like Nāgārjuna, Vasubandhu and Dharmakīrti.
Besides mastering their own works on philosophy, the
Buddhist scholars used to study Hindu works on
metaphysics as well.
Courses for Monks : The curriculum prescribed
for the monk scholar was naturally somewhat different.
It did not include any special study of secular sciences
like poetics, literature or astrology, but was concerned
principally with theological subjects. For ten years
after his admission as a novice, the monk-student was
under the direct guidance and control of his preceptor,
who used to initiate him in the study of Pāli and
Sanskrit. When these languages were properly
mastered, a thorough study of the sacred texts, (the
Tripiṭakas,) was started. When this was over, relatively
recent works on Buddhist religion and philosophy
were mastered. Hindu systems of religion, logic and
philosophy were then carefully studied in order to meet
the Hindu opponent on his own ground. It is
interesting to note that Yuan Chwang, who had under-
taken the arduous and perilous journey to India
primarily for studying Buddhist scriptures, spent two
fifth the period of his stay in India in studying Sanskrit
works on Hinduism. The education of the novice
did not terminate with his admission to the Order as
a full-fledged monk. For, the Buddhist monk was
expected to be a lifelong student like the Hindu
Naishṭhika Brahmachārin.
Selection of Text-books : We have no definite
information about the text-books prescribed for the
various courses in different institutions during different

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 157
centuries. These must have gone on changing in
course of time when better and more up-to-date books
written by competent authorities became available.
The selection of text books was usually governed by
considerations of merit alone. An author had to submit
his work to a synod of scholars at a famous centre of
learning like Pāṭalīputra or Benares¹, and if it was
found to be a work of merit by that body, it received
its imprimateur, which helped its acceptance and
spread in provincial towns. It should be however
noted that no pecuniary gain was likely to accrue to
an author by his book being prescribed in several
institutions; for there was no press and copyright in
ancient India. The adoption of a work as a text
book in the schools of a province however increased
the reputation of its author, and we sometimes come
across writers adopting rather questionable means to
get their books accepted. Ugrabhūti, the teacher of
king Anaṅgapāla of the Punjab (c. 1010–c. 1020) is said
to have induced his royal pupil to distribute two lakhs
of dirhams (= about Rs. 60,000) among the Pandits of
Kashmir in order to overcome successfully their
reluctance to accept his new work on grammar called
Śishya-hitā-vṛitti². Such cases however were probably
few. Usually books prescribed in a particular school
were those in vogue at the centre where the principal
and teachers of the school were educated. Hindus,
Buddhists and Jains would often prefer works written
by authors of their own persuasion in the case of
a subject like logic, which was cultivated by all schools.

1. Pāṇini is reported to have come all the way to Pāṭalīputra
   from Śalātura in N. W. F. P, in order to get his famous grammar
   approved by the synod at that famous capital. Śaṅkarāchārya came
   to Benares from Malabar in order to seek the imprimateur of the
   Pandits of that place over his philosophical works.
2. Sachau, Alberuni, Vol. I, pp. 185-6.

158 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
METHOD OF TEACHING AND STUDY
General Conditions of the Times : Before des-
cribing and commenting upon the method of teaching
and study current in ancient India, it is necessary that
we should familiarise ourselves with the general
conditions of the age. In the beginning the art of
writing was unknown, and even when it was invented,
it was not utilised for preserving and transmitting the
Vedic literature, which for several centuries was
the main topic of study. It was further held as
imperatively necessary that the canonical literature
should be memorised in the most meticulous way ;
there should be no possibility of the mistake even
of a single accent. The service of the art of writing
was no doubt utilised for preserving and teaching
non-Vedic literature, but owing to the absence of
paper and printing, books could be within the reach
of the rich only. Being written on birch leaves,
they were fragile as well as costly. The average
student could therefore not have his own copy of the
text-book ;¹ even the desire to possess one was regarded
as a symptom of indolence.² Under such circum-
stances, extensive use of a library was altogether
impracticable, nor could the help of visual instruction
through the help of charts and pictures be possible.
Oral instruction was the only available method of
teaching and it was the cheapest and the most
accurate.

1. गीती शीघ्री शिरःकंपी तथा लिखितपाठकः ।
   अनर्थज्ञोऽल्पकण्ठश्च षडेते पाठकाधमाः ॥
   Pāṇinīya-śikshā, 32.
2. द्यूतं पुस्तकशुश्रूषा नाटकासक्तिरेव च ।
   स्त्रियस्तन्द्री च निद्रा च विद्याविघ्नकराणि षट् ॥
   Nārada in S. C. S. p. 52.