द ब्यूटीफुल ट्री: १८वीं सदी में भारत की स्वदेशी गुरुकुल शिक्षा (धर्मपाल)

the present work. The reports, while never sufficiently analysed, have
often been quoted in most works on the history of education in India.
59. W. Adam: Ibid, pp.6-7. Incidentally the observation that every village
had a school was nothing peculiar to Adam. As mentioned earlier, many
others before him had made similar observations, including Thomas
Munro in his evidence to a House of Commons committee. Munro had
then observed that 'if civilization is to become an article of trade' between
England and India, the former 'will gain by the import cargo.' As
symptomatic of this high state of Indian civilisation, he also referred to
'schools established in every village for teaching, reading, writing and
arithmetic.' When Thomas Munro made this statement he already had
had 30 years of intensive Indian experience. (House of Commons Papers:
1812-13, Vol .7, p.131).
60. See Indian Science and Technology in the Eighteenth Century: some
contemporary European accounts, pp.143-63, for an account of this old
method.
61. This, as may be noticed, was quite at variance with the Madras
Presidency districts where Persian was not only studied little, but the
students of it were mainly Muslims. Interestingly, Adam mentions
(p.149) that amongst the Muslims 'when a child...is four years, four
months, and four days old', he, or she is on that day usually admitted to
school.
62. History of Indigenous Education in the Panjab since Annexation and in
1882 (Published 1883, Reprinted, Patiala, 1973).
63. The idea of their being divinely ordained was really a much older
English assumption. In A Brief Description of New York Formerly called
New-Netherlands, published in 1670, referring to the indigenous people
in that part of North America, Daniel Denton observes: 'It is to be
admired, how strangely they have decreast by the Hand of God, since the
English first settling of those parts; for since my time, where there were
six towns, they are reduced to two small villages, and it hath been
generally observed, that where the English come to settle, a Divine Hand
makes way for them, by removing or cutting off the Indians either by
wars one with the other, or by some raging mortal Disease.' (Reprint
1902 p.45)
64. See letter of Dr H. Scott to Sir Joseph Banks, President, Royal
Society, London, dated 7.1.1790 in Indian Science and Technology in the
Eighteenth Century, p.265.
65. First published in New York Daily Tribune, August 8, 1853; also
recently quoted by Iu.I. Semenov 'Socio-economic Formations and World
History,' in Soviet and Western Anthropology, edited by Ernest Gellner,
1980.
66. Current Anthropology, Volume 7, No. 4, October 1966, pp.395-449,
Estimating Aboriginal American Population, by Henry F. Dobyns.
67. Writing as early as 1804, William Bentinck, the young Governor of
the Madras Presidency, wrote to the President of the Board of Control,
Lord Castlereagh, that 'we have rode the country too hard, and the
consequence is that it is in the most lamentable poverty.' (Nottingham
University: Bentinck Papers: Pw Jb 722). In 1857-58 a military officer
wrote to Governor General Canning, 'it may be truly said that the
revenue of India has hitherto been levied at the point of the bayonet' and
considered this to be the major cause of the Mutiny. (Leeds: Canning
Papers: Military Secretary's Papers: Misc. No.289).
68. International Affairs, London, November 1931, pp.721-739; also
Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, vol.48, pp.193-206.
90

69. See origins of the School of Oriental Studies, London Institution, by
    P.J. Hartog, C.I.E., M.A., 1917.
70. A graphic image of the more privileged products of this British
    initiated education was given by Ananda K Coomaraswamy as early as
71. Coomaraswamy then wrote: ‘Speak to the ordinary graduate of an
    Indian University, or a student from Ceylon, of the ideals of the
    Mahabharata—he will hasten to display his knowledge of Shakespeare;
    talk to him of religious philosophy—you find that he is an atheist of the
    crude type common in Europe a generation ago, and that not only has he
    no religion, but is as lacking in philosophy as the average Englishman;
    talk to him of Indian music—he will produce a gramophone or a
    harmonium and inflict upon you one or both; talk to him of Indian dress
    or jewellery—he will tell you that they are uncivilised and barbaric; talk
    to him of Indian art—it is news to him that such a thing exists; ask him
    to translate for you a letter written in his own mother-tongue—he does
    not know it. He is indeed a stranger in his own land.’ (Modern Review,
    Calcutta, vol 4, Oct. 1908 p.338).
72. January 1932, pp.151-82.
73. Also in House of Commons Papers: 1831-32, vol. 9, p.468.
74. Clarendon Press, 1917, p.394.
75. In Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, London, 1917, pp.815-25.
76. Philip Hartog’s lectures were announced in the London Times,
    (March 1,4,6,1935) and two of them reported in it on March 2 and 5. On
    2 March the Times reported that Sir Philip Hartog, ‘submitted that under
    successive Governor Generals, from Warren Hastings to Lord
    Chelmsford, an educational policy was evolved as part of a general policy
    to govern India in the interest of India, and to develop her intellectual
    resources to the utmost for her own benefit.’ It is interesting, however, to
    note that the Times, while it gave fairly constant though brief notices to
    Gandhiji’s 1931 visit to England, and some of the public meetings he
    addressed and the celebration of his birthday, the meeting at Chatham
    House did not reach its pages. It was not only not reported the next day,
    October 21, 1931, but was also not announced along with various other
    notices of various other meetings, etc., on the morning of October 20.
    Possibly it was a convention not to report any meetings at Chatham
    House in newspapers.
77. The Book of Lectures was reviewed in the Times Literary Supplement
    under the caption ‘Mr Gandhi Refuted’. Complimenting Hartog, the
    review stated: ‘There are many deserved criticisms of past British
    administrators in this particular field, but other charges dissolve into
    thin air when exposed to the searching analysis Sir Philip Hartog has
    applied to a statement of Mr Gandhi...Sir Philip took up the challenge at
    once...he shows how facts were distorted to fit an educational theory.’
78. The text of Hartog-Gandhi correspondence is given at Annexures F
    (i)-(xxv).
79. The available material on the survey of indigenous education in the
    Presidency of Bombay has been brought out in a valuable book Survey of
    Indigenous Education in the Province of Bombay 1820-30 by R.V.
    Parulekar in 1951. This survey, however, appears to have covered only
    certain parts of the Bombay Presidency.
80. Judging from their products, in a certain sense, this may apply even
    more to the writings on India by most non-Indians. Their writings on
    various aspects of Indian society and polity will obviously be influenced,
    if not wholly conditioned, by their respective cultural and educational
    ethos. Even when some of them—Alexander Walker in the early 19th
    century and Prof. Burton Stein today—appear to understand India
    91

better, it is not really for them to map out how Indians should end up
perceiving themselves or their own society. Such a task can legitimately
only be undertaken by India itself.
80. Public Despatch to Bengal, 3 June 1814: ‘We refer with particular
satisfaction upon this occasion to that distinguished feature of internal
polity which prevails in some parts of India, and by which the instruction
of the people is provided for by a certain charge upon the produce of the
soil, and other endowments in favour of the village teachers, who are
thereby rendered public servants of the community.’
81. The revenue records of all areas, especially of the years 1770-90 for
the Bengal Presidency, and of 1801-20 for the Madras Presidency
provide very extensive information regarding such assignments. The
information regarding assignments for the purpose of carrying Ganga
water to religious shrines is taken from Mafee Register for 1847 for the
district of Hamirpur and Kalpi in the Uttar Pradesh State Archives at
Allahabad.
82. I.O.R. Factory Records: G/27/1, Supervisor Houghly to Murshe-
dabad Council, 10.10.1770, p.88.
83. In a note dated circa 1830.
84. The total number of maths and temples in Tanjore about this time
was around 4,000.
85. I.O.R. Factory Records: G/6/4. Proceedings of Burdwan Council on
Beerbhoom, 24.5.1775.
86. The problem of peasants deserting sirkar lands (i.e. lands paying
revenue to government) because of the exhorbitant rate of government
assessment even in the 1820s was of such frequency that it was
deliberated upon by Thomas Munro as Governor of Madras in November
1822. At that time Munro observed that ‘it would be most satisfactory if
the sirkar ryots were induced to give a voluntary preference to the sirkar
land’ and felt that the rest of the village community paying revenue to
government should not ‘allow a ryot to throw up sirkar land liable to
adjustment merely that he may occupy Enam land which is liable to
none.’ But if such ‘inducement’ did not work Munro was of the view, that
‘if necessary, measures for the protection of the rights of government
may be directed more immediately to the Enamdars, either by taking
their Enams or by resuming them.’ (Tamil Nadu state Archives: Board of
Revenue Proceedings: volume 930, Proceedings 7.11.1822, pp.10292-
96).
87. For fairly detailed information on Malabar, see the voluminous
Report of Commissioner Graeme, 16.7.1822 in TNSA: Revenue
Consultations, especially volume 277A.
88. Annexure A (xxi), Philip Hartog, who made much play of this reply,
as mentioned earlier, used it to throw doubt on the educational data
from the other districts. It is possible that because of his contrary
concerns, he was not able to comprehend this report fully.
89. Bellary was part of the Ceded Districts and was administered from
1800-7 by Thomas Munro. As mentioned earlier, it was here that Munro
seemed outraged by the fact that 35% of the total cultivated land was
still being assigned for various local purposes, and expressed his
determination to reduce it to as low as 5% of the total revenue of the
Ceded Districts. Munro at that time also advocated the imposition of an
income-tax of about 15% on all those (revenue assignees, as well as
merchants, artisans, labourers and the rest) who did not pay land
revenue. The Madras Government accepted his recommendation and this
tax, under various names, (Veesabuddy, Mohtarpha, etc.) was imposed
92

not only in the Ceded Districts but also in many other districts of the
Madras Presidency.
It is this background of exhorbitant taxation and the cutting down of all
expenses, even on the repair of irrigation sources that largely led to the
conversion of Bellary and Cuddapah into the latter day arid and
impoverished areas. Quite naturally, then, the educational returns from
Bellary were low.
90. Hansard: June 22, 1813.
91. Minute on Indian Education: March 1835.
92. J.S. Mill, History of British India, 1817, vol. I, pp.344, 351-2, 466-7,
472, 646.
93. Ibid, p.428.
94. Revenue Despatch to Madras: 11.2.1801.
93

DOCUMENTS
87

88

Annexure A
I
MINUTE OF GOVERNOR SIR THOMAS MUNRO
ORDERING THE COLLECTION OF DETAILED INFORMATION
ON INDIGENOUS EDUCATION:
25.6.1822*
(TNSA: Revenue Consultations: Vol.920: dated 2.7.1822)

1. Much has been written both in England and in this
   country about the ignorance of the people of India and the
   means of disseminating knowledge among them. But the
   opinions upon this subject are the mere conjectures of
   individuals unsupported by any authentic documents and
   differing so widely from each other as to be entitled to very little
   attention. Our power in this country and the nature of its own
   municipal institutions have certainly rendered it practicable to
   collect material from which a judgment might be formed of the
   state of the mental cultivation of the people. We have made
   geographical and agricultural surveys of our provinces. We have
   investigated their resources and endeavoured to ascertain their
   population, but little or nothing has been done to learn the state
   of education. We have no record to show the actual state of
   education throughout the country. Partial inquiries have been
   made by individuals, but those have taken place at distant
   periods—and on a small scale and no inference can be drawn
   from them with regard to the country in general. There may be
   some difficulty in obtaining such a record as we want. Some
   Districts will not—but others probably will furnish it—and if we
   get it only from two or three it will answer in some degree for all
   the rest. It cannot be expected to be very accurate, but it will at
   least enable us to form an estimate of the state of instructions
   among the people. The only record which can furnish the
   information required is a list of the schools in which reading and
   writing are taught in
   89

each district showing the number of scholars in each and the
caste to which they belong. The Collectors should be directed to
prepare this document according to the form which accompanies
this paper. They should be desired to state the names of the
book generally read at the schools. The time which scholars
usually continue, at such schools. The monthly or yearly charge
to the scholars and whether any of the schools are endowed by
the public and if so the nature and amount of the fund. When
there are colleges or other institutions for teaching Theology,
Law, Astronomy, etc. an account should be given of them. These
sciences are usually taught privately without fee or reward by
individuals to a few scholars or disciples, but there are also
some instances in which the native governments have granted
allowances in money and land for the maintenance of the
teachers.
2. In some districts, reading and writing are confined
almost entirely to Bramins and the mercantile class. In some
they extend to other classes and are pretty general among the
Patails of villages and principal Royets. To the women of
Bramins and of Hindoos in general they are unknown because
the knowledge of them is prohibited and regarded as
unbecoming of the modesty of the sex and fit only for public
dancers. But among the women of the Rujbundah and some
other tribes of Hindoos who seem to have no prejudice of this
kind, they are generally taught. The prohibition against women
learning to read is probably from various causes, much less
attended to in some districts than in others and as it is possible
that in every district a few females may be found in the reading
schools, a column has been entered for them in the Form
proposed to be sent to the Collector. The mixed and impure
castes seldom learn to read, but as a few of them do, columns
are left for them in the Form.
3. It is not my intention to recommend any interface
whatever in the native schools. Everything of this kind ought to
be carefully avoided, and the people should be left to manage
their schools in their own way. All that we ought to do is to
facilitate the operations of these schools by restoring any funds
that may have been diverted from them and perhaps granting
additional ones, where it may appear advisable. But on this
point we shall be better able to judge when we receive the
information now proposed to be called for.
25th June 1822. (Signed)
Thomas Munro
90

II
Ordered in consequence that the
following letter be despatched:
No.459
Revenue Department
To,
The President and Members of the Board of Revenue
Gentlemen,
I am directed to state that it is considered by the
Honourable the Governor-in-Council to be an object of interest
and of importance to obtain as accurate information as may be
procurable with regard to the actual state of education
throughout the country, and to desire that the several Collectors
may be required to furnish such information according to the
accompanying Form. Besides reporting the number of schools in
which reading and writing are taught, the number of scholars in
each and the castes to which they belong, the Collectors should
state the time which scholars usually continue at school, the
monthly or yearly charge to the scholars, whether any of the
schools are endowed by the public and in such cases the nature
and amount of the fund. When there are colleges or other
institutions for teaching Theology, Law, Astronomy, etc., an
account of them should be given. These sciences are usually
taught privately to a few scholars or disciples by individuals
without any fee or reward, but there are also some instances in
which the native government has granted allowances in money
and land for the maintenance of the teachers.
Although generally education is confined to particular
castes and is not extended to females, yet as there are
exceptions, which in certain districts may be numerous, the
accompanying Form is adopted to include them.
It is to be clearly understood by the Collectors that no
interference whatever with the native school is intended.
Everything of that kind should be carefully avoided and the
people should be left to manage their schools in their own way.
All that ought to be done is to facilitate the operation of the
schools, by restoring any funds that may have been diverted
from them and perhaps granting additional funds where it may
appear advisable.
Fort St. George, D. Hill,
2nd July 1822. Secretary to Government
91

III
CIRCULAR—FORT ST. GEORGE—25TH JULY 1822
(TNSA: BRP—Vol.920, Pro. 25.7.1822, pp.6971-72 No.7)

1. I am directed by the Board of Revenue to transmit to you
   the accompanying copy of a letter with its enclosure from the
   Secretary to Government in the Revenue Department, and to
   desire that you will submit the required information together
   with a statement in the prescribed Form at your earliest
   convenience.
2. In calling for the information from the different parts of
   your Collectorate, you will cause your public servants clearly to
   understand, and to make known to the people that no
   interference with the schools is intended, though every
   assistance will be given to facilitate their operations and to
   restore any funds which may appear to have been diverted from
   their original purposes.
   Fort St. George, R. Clarke,
   25th July 1822. Secretary
   (Statement on following page)
   92

93

IV
PRINCIPAL COLLECTOR, CANARA TO BOARD
OF REVENUE:
27.8.1822
(TNSA: BRP: Vol.924 Pro.5.9.1822, pp.8425-29 Nos.35-6)

1. I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter
   dated 25th ultimo, together with its enclosure being copy of
   letter from the Secretary to Government Revenue Department
   dated 2nd July directing me to forward a statement filled up as
   per Form transmitted, and to report upon the state of education
   in this zillah.
   As the preparation of the necessary information to fill up
   the statement in question, would take up a considerable time
   and as any just criterion of the actual extent of such schools as
   exist in this zillah cannot be formed upon it, I have considered it
   expedient to submit this address, explanatory of the foregoing
   causes, which will I think show the preparation of the document
   for this Province unnecessary.
2. There are no colleges in Canara for the cultivation of the
   abstruse Sciences. Neither are there any fixed schools and
   masters to teach in them.
   There is no instance known of any institutions of the above
   description having ever received support in any shape from the
   former governments.
3. The education of the few Bramin children of the higher
   classes in towns or villages, is conducted in the house of the
   principal man. He selects a teacher, who receives for each child
   a small sum, a present of cloth at particular ceremonies, and the
   same for a few others, children of the friends of the principal
   man, who also meet at his own house for the same purpose. The
   Moolla* in the same manner teaches a few Mussulman children
   on the same principle. It is entirely a private education, and the
   master is as often changed as the scholars. There is nothing
   belonging to it which can assimilate it with a shadow of public
   education, or indeed of regularity in learning.
   The children are taught to read and write and accounts,
   and unless belonging to the highest classes, the attainment of
   94

Persian and Hindwy and Canarese at the same time is seldom or
ever pursued. Indeed, amongst those classes, it is so entirely a
private tuition, that any estimate of the numbers of their child-
ren learning such languages could not be but erroneous.
4. Education is undoubtedly at its lowest ebb in Canara. To
the Bramins of the country the Conkanny and Shinnawee and to
the 2nd class of the former, the little education given, is
confined. Amongst the farmers, generally speaking, and probably
amongst one half of its population, the most common forms of
education are unknown and in disuse, or more correctly
speaking were never in use.
5. As applicable to the subject I beg leave to introduce an
extract from a letter to the assistant surgeon of the zillah,
written to him in consequence of a wish on the part of the
Superintendent General of Vaccination to obtain information
from me, on the practicability of inducing the upper classes of
natives in Canara, to undertake the situations of practitioners,
who from their supposed superior attainments would be enabled
to facilitate the progress of vaccination.
Extract of Paras 6th, 7th and 8th
6. I have stated that I consider there is no objection to the
Christian practitioner, but with regard to employment of
men of the other various castes in this district, causes exist
which I am led to believe would render the attempt futile.
The mass of people are cultivators, there are no
manufactures to speak of in Canara, it is a country of
cottages dispersed in valleys and jungles, each man living
upon his estate and hence there are few towns, even these
are thinly populated. Hence I am led to conjecture from a
lesser congregation of people the Arts and Sciences have
never, at least in later times, become of that consequence
in Canara to cause them to be taught and cherished.
Probably there is no District in the Peninsula so devoid of
artists or scientific men.
7. The soil of Canara is the natives undoubted right, gained
by the first of all claims, the original clearing of it for
cultivation. Thus, to this day his detestation of quitting his
house and the fields by which it is surrounded. For those
wants to which he is thus naturally exposed for cloth and
for the various necessities of life which his land does not
yield him, he is indebted to the few bazar men in the very
95

few towns in each talook; these men chiefly Concanese are
again indebted to their more opulent brethren established
on the coast for supplies which are bartered for the
products of the soil. These again are confined to three or
four principal articles so that they do not afford room for
much individual foreign enterprise, and consequently the
provision of them remains with the people, who, have ever
retained it, and thus strangers are in a great degree
excluded from the country.
8. From these causes I certainly consider the general want
of Men of Science originates, and also that men, where
their occupation is so entirely taken up with one pursuit
would not be induced to quit it on any account, much less
for the occupation of a travelling vaccinator.
6. Subsequently to my arrival in Canara, I had endeavored
to persuade some of the original farmers, the Bunts, to send
their nephews (for they are the heirs, not the sons) to Mangalore
for education—without success. A Christian school has been
established in which Latin and Portuguese alone are taught.
7. Should the Board after this explanation still consider the
preparation of the Form transmitted with their letter, desirable,
and according to the views of the government, I shall endeavor to
obtain the particulars. It will be, I beg to repeat, a very fallacious
statement. Amongst the numerous servants of this extensive
Collectorate there is but one, who writes Persian; the literary
knowledge of all others is confined to Hindwy and Canarese.
Even Sanscrit is very partially known, and the Ballabund is
confined to a very few of the class of Bramins who read the
Shastras. Amongst this latter class I have found many, who
could not read some of the ancient inscriptions, which they
assert are in a different character from the Hala Canarese, and
Ballabund they were taught.
Mangalore,
Principal Collector’s Cutcherry,
27th August, 1822.
(Order thereon)—35-36 T. Harris,
Ordered to lie on the table: Principal Collector.
96

V
COLLECTOR OF TINNEVELLY TO BOARD OF REVENUE:
18.10.1822
(TNSA: BRP: Vol.928 Pro.28.10.1822 pp.9936-7 No.46-7)
I have the honor of forwarding the Statement of Schools in
this District required by your Deputy's letter of the 25th July
last.
The preparation of the account has been delayed by
enquiry into the castes of the female scholars, who in almost all
instances are found to be dancing girls.
Tinnevelly District,
Sharenmadavy, J.B. Hudleston
18th October 1822. Collector.
(Statement on following page)
97

98

VI
ASSISTANT COLLECTOR, SERINGAPATAM TO BOARD OF
REVENUE:
29.10.1822
(TNSA: BRP: Vol.929 Pro.4.11.1822 pp.10260-2 Nos.33&4)

1. I have the honor to transmit in conformity to the
   instructions conveyed in your letter of the 25th July last, a
   statement exhibiting the number of seminaries within this zillah.
2. The extent of information acquired under the present
   prevailing system of education is extremely limited—nothing
   more is professed to be taught in these day-schools than
   reading, writing, and arithmetic, just competent for the
   discharge of the common daily transactions of society.
3. There are no traces on record, as far as I can ascertain,
   of endowments in land towards the support of colleges and
   schools having at a former period been granted either by the
   then existing government or any patriotic private individuals.
   The superintendents of the different seminaries were left for
   remuneration, entirely to the parents of the respective students
   frequenting them, and which system obtains to the present day.
4. It appears that for each pupil the preceptor receives 5
   annas monthly which makes the total annual expenditure for
   the purposes of education within the Island of Seringapatam
   amount to rupees 2,351 and annas 4. This sum, divided
   amongst 41 superintendents, gives each on an average the very
   inadequate and trifling income of rupees 57 annas 5 and pice 5.
   Seringapatam H. Vibart
   29th October 1822. Assistant Collector in charge.
   (Statement on following page)
   99

100

VII
COLLECTOR, TINNEVELLY TO BOARD OF REVENUE:
7.11.1822
(TNSA: BRP Vol.931, Pro.18.11.1822 No.37, pp. 10545-6)
I have now the honor of forwarding a complete account of
schools in this district according to the prescribed Form. The
accounts from the talook of Punjamahl not having been received
at the time of my sending those of the other talooks.
The total under the head of population appears to have
been erroneous, and is correctly given in the statement, now
sent:
Tinnevelly, J.B. Hudleston,
7th November 1822. Collector.
(Statement on following page)
101

102