वेदों की प्राचीनता एवं काल-निर्णय / ओरायन (लोकमान्य बाल गंगाधर तिलक - खगोलीय वैदिक शोध)

THE COWS' WALK. 195
course, was once completed in ten months. Why should it be
so? Why was a Sattra, which is annual in its very nature
and which now lasts for twelve months, once completed in ten
months? How did the sacrificers obtain all the religious me-
rit of a twelve months' sacrifice by sacrificing for ten months
only? These are very important questions; but the Aitareya
Brâhmaṇa neither raises them, nor gives us any clue to their
solution. If we, however, go back to the Taittirîya Saṁhitâ,
the oldest and most authoritative work on the sacrificial cere-
monies, we find the questions distinctly raised. The Saṁhitâ
expressly states that the Gavâm-ayanam can be completed in
ten or twelve months, according to the choice of the sacrificer;
but it plainly acknowledges its inability to assign any reason
how a Sattra of twelve months could be completed in ten, ex-
cept the fact that "it is an old practice sanctioned by imme-
morial usage." These passages are very important for our
purpose, and I give below a close translation of each. The
first occurs in the Taittirîya Saṁhitâ (VII, 5, 1, 1-2)*, and
may be rendered as follows :—
"The cows held this sacrificial session, desiring that 'be-
ing hornless let horns grow unto us.' Their session lasted
(for) ten months. Then when the horns grew (up), they rose
saying, 'We have gained.' But those, whose (horns) were not
grown, they rose after completing the year, saying 'We have
gained.' Those, that had their horns grown, and those that
had not, both rose saying 'We have gained.' Cows' session is
thus the year (year session). Those, who know this, reach the
year and prosper verily. Therefore, the hornless (cow) moves

• Taitt. Saṁ. VII, 5, 1, 1–2,—गावो वा एतत् सत्रमासताशृंगाः सतीः
  शृंगाणि नो जायंता इति कामेन । तासां दश मासा निषणा आसन्नथ शृं गाण्य-
  जायंत ता उदतिष्ठन्नरात्स्मेत्यथ यासां नाजायंत ताः संवत्सरमाप्त्वाोदतिष्ठन्नरा-
  त्स्मेति । यासां चाजायंत यासां च न ता उभयीरुदतिष्ठन्नरात्स्मेति । गोसत्रं वै
  संवत्सरो य एवं विद्वाँसः संवत्सरमुपयंत्यृध्नुवंत्येव तस्मात्तूपरा वार्षिकी मासौ
  षंर्त्वा चरति सत्राभिजितं ह्यस्यै तस्मात्संवत्सरसदो यत्किंच गृहे क्रियते तदाप्त-
  मवरुद्धमभिजितं क्रियते ।

196 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
(grazes) pleased during the two rainy months. This is what
the Sattra has achieved for her. Therefore, whatever is done
in the house of one performing the yearly Sattra is successful-
ly, timely and properly done."
This account slightly differs from that given in the Aita-
reya Brâhmaṇa. In the Saṁhitâ the cows, whose session last-
ed for twelve months, are said to be still hornless; but instead
of getting vigour (ûrjam), they are said to have obtained as a
reward for their additional sitting, the pleasure of comfortable
grazing in the two rainy months, during which, as the com-
mentator observes, the horned cows find their horns an impe-
diment to graze freely in the field, where new grass has grown
up. But the statement regarding the duration of the Sattra,
viz., that it lasted for ten or twelve months, is the same both
in the Saṁhitâ and in the Brâhmaṇa. The Saṁhitâ again
takes up the question in the next Anuvâka (VII, 5, 2, 1-2)*,
and further describes the cows' session as follows:—
"The cows held this sacrificial session, being hornless
(and) desiring to obtain horns. Their session lasted (for) ten
months; then when the horns grew (up), they said, 'We have
gained, let us rise, we have obtained the desire for which we
sat (commenced the session).' Half, or as many, of them as
said, 'We shall certainly sit for the two twelfth (two last)
months, and rise after completing the year,' (some) of them had
horns in the twelfth month by trust, (while) by distrust those
that (are seen) hornless (remained so). Both, that is, those
who got horns, and those who obtained vigour (ûrjam), thus
* Taitt. Sam. VII, 5, 2, 1-2.—गावो वा एतत् सत्रमासताशृं˙गाः सतीः
शृंगाणि सिषासंतीस्तासां दश मासा निषण्णा आसन्नथ शृंगाण्यजायंत ता अ-
ब्रुवन्नरात्स्मोत्तिष्ठामान्न तं काममरुत्स्महि येन कामेन न्यषदामेति तासामु त्वा अ-
ब्रुवन्नर्धा वा यावतीर्वाऽस्सामहा एवेमौ द्वादशौ मासौ संवत्सरं संपाद्योत्तिष्ठामेति
तासां द्वादशे मासि शृंगाणि प्रावर्तन्त श्रद्धया वाऽश्रद्धया वा ता इमा वास्तूपरा
उभय्यो वाव ता आर्ध्नुवन् याश्च शृंगान्यसुन्वन् • याश्चोर्जमवावृंधतर्ध्नोति दशसु
मासूत्तिष्ठन्नृध्नोति द्वादशसु य एवं वेद पदेन खलु वा एते यंति विन्दति खलु वै
पदेन यन्तङ्गा एतदृद्धमयनं तस्मादेतत्तद्रोत्सनि ।

THE COWS' WALK. 197
attained their object. One, who knows this, prospers, whether
rising (from the sacrifice) in the tenth month or in the twelfth.
They indeed go by the path (padena); he going by the path
indeed attains (the end). This is that successful ayanam
(session). Therefore, it is go-sani (beneficial to the cows).”
This passage, in its first part, repeats the story given in
the previous Anuvâka of the Saṁhitâ and in the Aitareya Brâh-
maṇa with slight variations. But the latter part contains two
important statements : firstly that whether we complete the
sacrifice within ten months or twelve months, the religious me-
rit or fruit obtained is the same in either case, for both are said
to prosper equally ; and secondly, this is said to be the case
because it is the ‘path,’ or as Sâyaṇa explains, “ an immemorial
custom.” The Saṁhitâ is, in fact, silent as to the reason why an
annual Sattra, which ought to, and as a matter of fact does,
now last for twelve months, could be completed in ten months;
and this reticence is very remarkable, considering how the
Saṁhitâ sometimes indulges in speculations about the origin of
sacrificial rites. Any how we have two facts clearly established,
(1) that at the time of the Taittirîya Saṁhitâ the Gavâm-aya-
nam, the type of all annual Sattras, could be completed in ten
months ; and (2) that no reason was known at the time, as to
why a Sattra of twelve months could be thus finished in ten,
except that it was ‘an immemorial custom.’ The Tâṇḍya
Brâhmaṇa, IV, 1, has a similar discussion about Gavâm-aya-
nam, and clearly recognises its two-fold character so far as
its duration is concerned. Sâyaṇa and Bhaṭṭ-Bhâskara, in
their commentaries on the Taittirîya Saṁhitâ, cannot, there-
fore, be said to have invented any new theory of their own
as regards the double duration of this annual Sattra. We
shall discuss later on what is denoted by “ cows ” in the above
passages. At present we are concerned with the duration of
the Sattra ; and if we compare the above matter-of-fact state-
ments in the Saṁhitâ about the double duration of the annual

198 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
Sattra with the legend of the Dashagvas sacrificing for ten
months, the conclusion, that in ancient times the ancestors of
the Vedic Aryas completed their annual sacrificial session in
ten months, becomes irresistible. This duration of the Sattra
must have been changed and all such Sattras made to last for
twelve months, when the Vedic people came to live in regions
where such an annual session was impossible. But conserva-
tism in such matters is so strong that the old practice must
have outlived the change in the calendar, and it had to be re-
cognised as an alternative period of duration for this Sattra in
the Samhitâs. The Taittirîya Samhitâ has thus to record the
alternative period, stating that it is an ancient practice, and I
think it settles the question, so far as the duration of these
Sattras in ancient times is concerned. Whatever reasons we
may assign for it, it is beyond all doubt that the oldest annual
Sattras lasted only for ten months.
But the Taittirîya Samhitâ is not alone in being thus
unable to assign any reason for this relic of the ancient calen-
dar, or the duration of the annual Sattra. We still designate
the twelfth month of the European solar year as December,
which word etymologically denotes the tenth month, (Latin
decem, Sans. dashan, ten; and ber Sans. vâra, time or period),
and we all know that Numa added two months to the ancient
Roman year and made it of twelve months. Plutarch, in his
life of Numa, records another version of the story, viz., that
Numa, according to some, did not add the two months, but sim-
ply transferred them from the end to the beginning of the year.
But the names of the months clearly show that this could not
have been the case, for the enumeration of the months by words
indicating their order, as the fifth or Quintilis (old name for
July), the sixth or Sixtilis, (old name for August), the seventh
or September and so on the rest in their order, cannot, after it is
once begun, be regarded to have abruptly stopped at December,
allowing only the last two months to be differently named.

THE COWS' WALK. 199
Plutarch has, therefore, rightly observed that "we have a proof
in the name of the last (month) that the Roman year contained,
at first, ten months only, and not twelve."* But if there was
any doubt on the point, it is now removed by the analogy of the
Gavâm-ayanam and the legends of the Dashagvas and Dîrghata-
mas. Macrobius (Saturnal. Lib. I. Chap. 12) confirms the story of
Numa's adding, and not simply transposing, two months to the
ancient year of ten months. What the Avesta has to say on
this subject we shall see later on where traditions about the
ancient year amongst the other Aryan races will also be consi-
dered. Suffice it to say for the present that, according to tra-
dition, the ancient Roman year consisted only of ten months,
and like the duration of the Gavâm-ayanam, it was subsequently
changed into a year of twelve months ; and yet, so far as I know,
no reason has yet been discovered, why the Roman year in
ancient times was considered to be shorter by two months. On
the contrary, the tendency is either to explain away the tradi-
tion some how as inconvenient, or to ignore it altogether as
incredible. But so long as the word December is before us, and
we know how it is derived, the tradition cannot be so lightly
set side. The Encyclopædia Britanica (s. v. calendar) records
the ancient tradition that the oldest Roman year of Romu-
lus was of ten months of 304 days, and observes "it is not known
how the remaining days were disposed of." If, with all the resour-
ces of modern science at our command, we have not yet been
able to ascertain why the oldest Roman year was of ten months
only, and how the remaining days were disposed of, we need
not be surprised if the Taittirîya Saṁhitâ refrained from spe-
culating on the point and contented itself with stating that
such was the 'path' or the old custom or practice handed
down from generation to generation from times immemorial.

• See Plutarch's Lives, translated into English by the Rev. John
  and William Langhorne (Ward, Lock & Co.), p. 54, f.

200 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
The Arctic theory, however, now throws quite a new light on
these ancient traditions, Vedic as well as Roman; and if we take
the Gavâm-ayanam of ten months and the old Roman year of
ten months as relics of the period when the ancestors of both
these races lived together within the circum-polar regions, there
is no difficulty of explaining how the remaining days were dispo-
sed of. It was the period of the long night,—a time when Indra
fought with Vala, to regain the cows imprisoned by the latter
and Hercules killed the giant Cacus, a three-headed fire-vomiting
monster, who had carried off Hercules' cows and hid them in a
cave, dragging them backwards in order that the foot-marks might
not be traced. When the Aryan people migrated southwards
from this ancient home they had to change this calendar to suit
their new home by adding two more months to the old year. But
the traces of the old calendar could not be completely wiped
off, and we have still sufficient evidence, traditional or sacrifi-
cial, to warrant us in holding that a year of ten months followed
by a night of two months was known in the Indo-Germanic
period—a conclusion, which is further confirmed by Teutonic
myths and legends, as explained by Prof. Rhys, whose views
will be found summarised in a subsequent chapter.
The Taittirîya Saṁhitâ and the Aitareya Brâhmaṇa speak
of the Gavâm-ayanam as being really held by the cows. Was
it really a session of these animals ? Or was it something else ?
The Aitareya Brâhmaṇa, we have seen, throws out a sugges-
tion that 'the cows are the Âdityas,' that is, the month-gods,
and the Cows' session is really the session of the monthly sun-
gods.* Comparative mythology now fully bears out the truth
of this remarkable suggestion put forward by the Brâhmaṇa.
Cows, such as we meet them in the mythological legends,
represent days and nights of the year, not only in the Vedic

• See Aitareya Brâh. IV, 17, quoted supra ; गवामयनेन यंति ।
  गावो वा आदित्या आदित्यानामेव तदयनेन यंति ।

THE COWS' WALK. 201
but also in the Greek mythology ; and we can, therefore, now
give a better account of the origin of this sacrificial session
than that it was a session of bovine animals for the purpose
of obtaining horns. Speaking of cows in the Aryan mythology,
Prof. Max Muller in his Contributions to the Science of Mythology
(Vol. II. p. 761) writes as follows :—
"There were thus three kinds of cows, the real cows, the
cows in the dark cloud (rain=milk), and the cows stepping forth
from the dark stable of the night (the rays of the morning).
These three are not always easy to distinguish in the Veda, nay,
while we naturally try to distinguish between them, the poets-
themselves seem to delight in mixing them up. In the passage
quoted above (I, 32, 11), we saw how the captive waters were
compared to cows that had been stolen by Paṇi (niruddhāḥ
āpaḥ Paṇinā iva gāvaḥ), but what is once compared in the Veda
is soon identified. As to the Dawn, she is not only compared
to a cow, she is called the cow straight out. Thus when we
read, R. V. I, 92, 1, 'These dawns have made a light on the east-
ern half of the sky, they brighten their splendour, the bright
cows approach, the mothers,' the cows, gāvaḥ, can only be the
dawns themselves, the plural of dawn being constantly in the
Veda used where we should use the singular. In R. V. I, 93, 4,
we read that 'Agnîshomau deprived Paṇi of his cows and found
light for many.' Here again the cows are the dawns kept by
Paṇi in the dark stable or cave of the night, discovered by
Saramâ and delivered every morning by the gods of light."
"We read in R. V. I, 62, 3, that Bṛihaspati split the rock
and found the cows."
"Of Indra it is said, II, 19, 3, that he produced the sun and
found the cows ; of Bṛihaspati, II, 24, 3, that he drove out
the cows, that he split the cave by his word, that he hid the
darkness, and lighted up the sky. What can be clearer ? The
Maruts also, II, 34, 1, are said to uncover the cows, and Agni,

202 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
V, 14, 4, is praised for killing the fiends, for having overcome
darkness by light, and having found the cows, water and the
sun."
"In all these passages we find no iva or na, which would
indicate that the word cow was used metaphorically. The
dawns or days as they proceed from the dark stable, or are
rescued from evil spirits, are spoken of directly as the cows. If
they are spoken of in the plural, we find the same in the case
of the Dawn (ushas) who is often conceived as many, as in II,
28, 2, upâyane ushasâm gomatinâm, 'at the approach of the
dawns with their cows.' From that it required but a small
step to speak of the one Dawn as the mother of the cows, IV,
52, 2, mâtâ gavâm."
"Kuhn thought that these cows should be understood as the
red clouds of the morning. But clouds are not always present
at sunrise, nor can it well be said that they are carried off and
kept in prison during the night by the powers of darkness."
"But What is important and settles the point is the fact
that these cows or oxen of the dawn or of the rising sun occur
in other mythologies also and are there clearly meant for days.
They are numbered as 12 × 30, that is, the thirty days of the 12
lunar months. If Hêlios has 350 oxen and 350 sheep, that can
only refer to the days and to the nights of the year, and would
prove the knowledge of a year of 350 days before the Aryan
separation."
"Thus the cows in mythology are the days and nights, or
dawns, that are imprisoned by Paṇi, and not real living cows
with horns. Adopting this explanation and substituting these
metaphorical cows for gavâḥ in the Gavâm-ayanam, it is not
difficult to see that underneath the strange story of cows
holding a sacrificial session for getting horns, there lies concealed
the remarkable phenomenon, that, released from the clutches
of Paṇi, these cows of days and nights walked on for ten
months, the oldest duration of the session known as Cows'

THE COWS' WALK. 203
walk. In plain language this means, if it means anything,
that the oldest Aryan year was one of ten months followed by
the long night, during which the cows were again carried away
by the powers of darkness. We have seen that the oldest Ro-
man year was of ten months, and the Avesta, as will be shown
later on, also speaks of ten months' summer prevailing in the
Airyana Vaejo before the home was invaded by the evil spirit,
who brought on ice and severe winter in that place. A year of
ten months with a long night of two months may thus be
taken to be known before the Aryan separation, and the refer-
ences to it in the Vedic literature are neither isolated nor ima-
ginary. Thye are the relics of ancient history, which have been
faithfully preserved in the sacrificial literature of India, and if
they were hitherto misunderstood it was because the true key
required for their solution was as yet unknown.
But as stated in the previous chapter, a year in the circum-
polar region will always have a varying number of the months
of sunshine according to latitude. Although, therefore, there
is sufficient evidence to establish the existence of a year of
ten months, we cannot hold that it was the only year known in
ancient times. In fact we have seen that the legend of Aditi
indicates the existence of the seven months of sunshine ; and a
band of thirty continuous dawns supports the same conclusion.
But it seems that a year of ten months of sunshine was more
prevalent, or was selected as the mean of the different vary-
ing years. The former view is rendered probable by the fact
that of the Aṅgirases of various forms (virûpas) the Navag-
vas and the Dashagvas are said to be the principal or the most
important in the Ṛig-Veda (X, 62, 6). But whichever view
we adopt, the existence of a year of seven, eight, nine, ten or
eleven months of sunshine follows as a matter of course, if the
ancient Aryan home was within the Arctic circle. Prof. Max
Muller, in the passage quoted above, points out that the old
Greek year probably consisted of 350 days, the 350 oxen of

204 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
Hêlios representing the days, and 350 sheep representing the
nights. He also notices that in German mythology 700 gold
rings of Wieland, the smith, are spoken of, and comparing the
number with 720 sons of Agni mentioned in I, 164, 11, he
draws from it the conclusion that a year of 350 days is also
represented in the German mythology. This year is shorter
by ten days than the civil year of 360 days, or falls short of
the full solar year by 15 days. It is, therefore, clear, that if a
year of 350 days existed before the Aryan separation, it must
have been followed by a continuous night of ten days ; while,
where the year was of 300 days, the long night extended over
60 days of 24 hours each. We shall thus have different kinds
of long nights; and it is necessary to see if we can collect evi-
dence to indicate the longest duration of the night known be-
fore the Aryan separation. Speaking of the cows or oxen of
Hêlios, as stated in the passage quoted above, Prof. Max Mul-
ler goes on to observe :-
"The cows or oxen of Hêlios thus receive their back-
ground from the Veda, but what is told of them by Homer is
by no means clear. When it is said that the companions of
Odysseus consumed the oxen of Hêlios, and that they thus
forfeited their return home, we can hardly take this in the
modern sense of consuming or wasting their days, thought it
may be difficult to assign any other definite meaning to it.
Equally puzzling is the fable alluded to in the Homeric hymn
that Hermes stole the oxen of Apollon and killed two of them.
The number of Apollon's oxen is given as fifty (others give
the number as 100 cows, twelve oxen and one bull), which
looks like the number of weeks in the lunar year, but why
Hermes should be represented as carrying off the whole herd
and then killing two, is difficult to guess, unless we refer it to
the two additional months in a cycle of four years."
In the light of the Arctic theory the puzzle here referred
to is solved without any difficulty. The stealing away or the

THE COWS' WALK. 205
carrying off of the cows need not now be taken to mean
simple wasting of the days in the modern sense of the word; nor
need we attribute such stories to the "fancy of ancient bards
and story tellers." The legend or the tradition of stealing,
consuming, or carrying off the cows or oxen is but another
form of stating that so many days were lost, being swallowed
up in the long night that occurred at the end of the year and
lasted, according to latitude, for varying periods of time. So
long as every thing was to be explained on the theory of a
daily struggle between light and darkness, these legends were
unintelligible. But as soon as we adopt the Arctic theory the
whole difficulty vanishes, and what was confused and puzzling
before becomes at once plain and comprehensible. In the
Vedic mythology cows are similarly said to be stolen by Vṛitra
or Vala, but their number is nowhere given, unless we regard
the story of Ṛijrâshva (the Red-horse) slaughtering 100 or 101
sheep and giving them to a she-wolf to devour (I,116,16; 117, 18),
as a modification of the story of stealing the cows. The Vedic
sacrificial literature does, however, preserve for us an important
relic, besides the one above noted, of the older calendar and
especially the long night. But in this case the relic is so deeply
buried under the weight of later explanations, adaptations and
emendations, that we must here examine at some length the
history of the Soma sacrifices in order to discover the original
meaning of the rites which are included under that general name.
That the Soma sacrifice is an ancient institution is amply proved
by parallel rites in the Parsi scriptures; and whatever doubt we
may have regarding the knowledge of Soma in the Indo-European
period, as the word is not found in the European languages,
the system of sacrifices can be clearly traced back to the
primeval age. Of this sacrificial system, the Soma sacrifice may,
at any rate, be safely taken as the oldest representative, since it
forms the main feature of the ritual of the Ṛig-Veda, and a whole

206 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
Maṇḍala of 114 hymns in the Ṛig-Veda is dedicated to the
praise of Soma. A careful analysis of the Soma sacrifice may,
therefore, be expected to disclose, at least partially, the nature
of the oldest sacrificial system of the Aryan race; and we,
therefore, proceed to examine the same.
The chief characteristic of the Soma sacrifice, as distin-
guished from other sacrifices, is, as the name indicates, the ex-
traction of the Soma juice and the offering thereof to gods be-
fore drinking it. There are three libations of Soma in a day,
one in the morning, one at mid-day, and the last in the evening,
and all these are accompanied by the chanting of hymns during
the sacrifice. These Soma sacrifices, if classed according to
their duration, fall under three heads; (1) those that are per-
formed in a single day, called Ekâhas, (2) those that are per-
formed in more than one and less than thirteen days, called
Ahînas, and (3) those that take thirteen or more than 13 days
and may last even for one thousand years, called Sattras. Under
the first head we have the Agniṣhṭoma, fully described in the
Aitareya Brâhmaṇa (III, 39-44), as the key or the type of all
the sacrifices that fall under this class. There are six modifica-
tions of Agniṣhṭoma, viz., Ati-agniṣhṭoma, Ukthya, Shoḍashî,
Vâjapeya, Atirâtra and Aptoryâma, which together with Ag-
niṣhṭoma, form the seven parts, kinds or modifications of the
Jyotiṣhṭoma sacrifice, (Ashv. S. S. VI, 11, 1). The modification
chiefly consists in the number of hymns to be recited at the
libations, or the manner of recitation, or the number of the
Grahas or Soma-cups used on the occasion. But with these we
are not at present concerned. Of the second class of Soma sacri-
fices, the Dvâdashâha or twelve days' sacrifice is celebrated both
as Ahîna and Sattra and is considered to be very important.
It is made up of three tryahas (or three days' performances,
called respectively Jyotis, Go, and Ayus), the tenth day and the
two Atirâtras (Ait. Br. IV, 23-4). The nine days' performance

THE COWS' WALK. 207
(three tryahas) is called the Nava-rātra. Side by side with this,
there are, under this head, a number of Soma sacrifices extend-
ing over two nights, three nights, four nights, upto twelve nights,
called dvi-rātra, tri-rātra and so on (Tait. Saṁ. VII; 1, 4,—VII, 3,
2 ; Ashv. Shr. Sut. X and XI ; Tāṇ. Brā. 20, 11,—24, 19). In the
third class we have the annual Sattras and of these the Gavām-
ayanam is the type. Some Sattras which come under this class
are described as extending over 1,000 years, and a discussion is
found in sacrificial works as to whether the phrase one thousand
years signifies 1,000 real years, or whether it stands for 1,000 days.
But we may pass it over as unnecessary for our purpose. The
annual Sattras are the only important Sattras of this class, and
to understand their nature we must see what a shaḷaha means.
The word literally denotes a group of six days (shaṭ + ahan) and
is used to denote six days' performance in the sacrificial litera-
ture. It is employed as a unit to measure a month in the same
way as we now use a week, a month being made up of five
shaḷahas. The shaḷaha, in its turn, consists of the daily sacrifices
called, Jyotis, Go, Āyus, and the same three taken in the
reverse order as Āyus, Go and Jyotis. Every shaḷaha, therefore,
begins and ends with a Jyotiṣhṭoma (Ait. Br. IV, 15). The sha-
ḷaha is further distinguished into Abhiplava and Pṛishṭhya, ac-
cording to the arrangement of the stomas or songs sung at the
Soma libations. An annual Sattra is, in the main, made up of
a number of shaḷahas joined with certain special rites at the be-
ginning, the middle and the close of the Sattra. The central day
of the Sattra is called Viṣhuvān, and stands by itself, dividing
the Sattra into two equal halves like the wings of a house (Tait.
Br. I, 2, 3, 1) ; and the rites in the latter half of the session or
after the Viṣhuvān day are performed in an order which is the
reverse of that followed in performing the ceremonies in the first
half of the sacrifice. The model annual Sattra (the Gavām-
ayanam) thus consists of the following parts :—

208 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
Parts. Days.

1. The introductory Atirâtra............................................ 1
2. The Chaturviṁsha day, otherwise called the Ârambha-
   nîya (Ait. Br. IV. 12), or the Prâyaṇîya (Tâṇḍ. Br.
   IV, 2), the real beginning of the Sattra............... 1
3. Four Abhiplava, followed by one Pṛiṣhṭhya shaḷaha
   each month; continued in this way for five months... 150
4. Three Abhiplava and one Pṛiṣhṭhya shaḷaha............... 24
5. The Abhijit day...................................................... 1
6. The Three Svara-Sâman days.................................... 3
7. The Viṣhuvân or the Central day, which stands by
   itself, i.e., not counted in the total of the Sattra days.
8. The three Svara-Sâman days.................................... 3
9. The Vishvajit day................................................... 1
10. One Pṛiṣhṭhya and three Abhiplava shaḷahas......... 24
11. One Pṛiṣhṭhya and four Abhiplava shaḷahas each month;
    continued in this way for four months.................. 120
12. Three Abhiplava shaḷahas, one Go-ṣhṭoma, one Âyu-
    ṣhṭoma, and one Dasharâtra (the ten days of Dvâda-
    shâha), making up one month.............................. 30
13. The Mahâvrata day, corresponding to the Chaturviṁsha
    day at the beginning............................................ 1
14. The concluding Atirâtra............................................ 1
    Total days.........360.
    It will be seen from the above scheme that there are really
    a few sacrificial rites which are absolutely fixed and unchange-
    able in the yearly Sattra. The two Atirâtras, the introductory
    and the concluding, the Chaturviṁsha and the Mahâvrata
    day, the Abhijit and the Vishvajit, the three Svara-Sâman
    days on either side of Viṣhuvân, the Viṣhuvân itself, and
    the ten days of Dvâdashâha, making up 22 days in all, ex-
    clusive of Viṣhuvân, are the only parts that have any special-
    ity about them. The rest of the days are all made up by
    Abhiplava and Pṛiṣhṭhya shaḷahas, which, therefore, consti-
    tute what may. be called the elastic or the variable part of
    the yearly Sattra. Thus if we want a Gavâm-ayanam of ten
    months, we have only to strike off five shaḷahas from the

THE COWS' WALK 209
parts marked 3 and 11 in the above scheme. The Âdityanâm-
ayanam is another modification of the above scheme in which,
amongst other changes, the shaḷahas are all Abhiplava,
instead of being a combination of Abhiplava and Prishṭhya;
while if all the shaḷahas are Prishṭhya, along with some
other changes, it becomes the Aṅgirasâm-ayanam. All
these modifications do not, however, touch the total number
of 360 days. But there were sacrificers, who adopted the
lunar year of 354 days, and, therefore, omitted 6 days from
the above scheme; and their Sattra is called the Utsar-
giṇâm-ayanam (Tait. Sam. VII, 5, 7, 1; Tâṇḍya Brâh. V, 10).
In short, the object was to make the Sattra correspond with
the year adopted, civil or lunar, as closely as possible. But
these points are not relevant to our purpose. The Brâhmaṇas
and the Shrauta Sûtras give further details about the various
rites to be performed on the Viṣhuvân, the Abhijit and the
Vishvajit or the Svara-sâman day. The Aitareya Âraṇyaka
describes the Mahâvrata ceremony; while the Atirâtra and the
Chaturviṁsha are described in the fourth book of the Aitareya
Brâhmaṇa. The Chaturviṁsha is so called because the stoma
to be chanted on that day is twenty-four-fold. It is the real
beginning of the Sattra as the Mahâvrata is its end. The
Aitareya Brâhmaṇa (IV, 14) says, "The Hotṛi pours forth
the seed. Thus he makes the seed (which is poured forth)
by means of the Mahâvrata day produce off-spring. For seed
if effused every year is productive." This explanation shows
that like the Pravargya ceremony, the Mahâvrata was intended
to preserve the seed of the sacrifice in order that it might ger-
minate or grow at the proper time. It was a sort of link bet-
ween the dying and the coming year, and appropriately con-
cluded the annual Sattra. It will be further seen that every
annual Sattra had an Ati-râtra at each of its ends, and that
the Dvâdashâha, or rather the ten days thereof, formed an
important concluding part of the Sattra.
24

210 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
The above is only a brief description, a mere outline of the
scheme of the annual Sattras mentioned in sacrificial works, but it
is sufficient for our purpose. We can see from it that a civil year
of 360 days formed their basis, and the position of the Viṣhuvân
was of great importance inasmuch as the ceremonies after it
were performed in the reverse order. I have shown elsewhere
what important inferences can be drawn from the position of the
Viṣhuvân regarding the calendar in use at the time when the
scheme was settled. But we have now to consider of times which
preceded the settlement of this scheme, and for that purpose
we must describe another set of Soma sacrifices included under
the general class of Sattras. It has been stated above that side
by side with the Dvâdashâha, there are Ahîna sacrifices of two
nights, three nights, etc. upto twelve nights. But these sacri-
fices do not stop with the twelve nights' performance. There are
thirteen nights', fourteen nights', fifteen nights,' and so on upto one
hundred nights' sacrifice called Trayodasha-râtra, Chaturdasha-
râtra and so on upto Shata-râtra. But since the Ahîna has
been defined to be a sacrifice extending over not more than
twelve or less than thirteen days, all the night-sacrifices extend-
ing over a period longer than twelve nights are included
in the third class, viz., the Sattras. If we, however, dis-
regard this artificial division, it will be found that along
with the Ekâha, the Dvâdashâha and the annual Sattras, there
is a series of, what are termed, the night-sacrifices or sattras
extending over a period of time from two to one hundred
nights, but not further. These night-sacrifices or Râtri-sattras
are mentioned in the Taittirîya Saṁhitâ, the Brâhmaṇas and
the Shrauta Sûtras in clear terms, and there is no ambiguity
about their nature, number, or duration. The Taittirîya Saṁ-
hitâ in describing them often uses the word Râtrîḥ (nights)
in the plural, stating, that so and so was the first to institute or
to perceive 'so many nights' meaning so many nights' sacrifice,

THE COWS' WALK. 211
(vimshatim râtrîh, VII. 3, 9, 1; dvâtrimshatam râtrîh, VII, 4, 4, 1).
According to the principle of division noted above all night-
sacrifices of less than thirteen nights' duration will be called
Ahîna, while those extending over longer time upto one hundred
nights will come under Sattras; but this is, as remarked above,
evidently an artificial division, and one, who reads carefully
the description of these sacrifices, cannot fail to be struck by
the fact that we have here a series of night-sacrifices from two to
a hundred nights, or if we include the Ati-râtra in this series, we
have practically a set of hundred nightly Soma sacrifices, though,
according to the principle of division adopted, some may fall
under the head of Ahîna and some under that of Sattras.
Now an important question in connection with these
Sattras is why they alone should be designated 'night-sacri-
fices,' (râtri-kratus), or 'night-sessions' (râtri-sattras)? and
why their number should be one hundred? or, in other words,
why there are no night-sattras of longer duration than one
hundred nights? The Mîmâmsakas answer the first part of
the question by asking us to believe that the word 'night'
(râtrih) is really used to denote 'a day' in the denomination of
these sacrifices (Shabara on Jaimini VIII, 1, 17). The word
Dvi-râtra, according to this theory, means two days' sacrifice,
and Shata-râtra, a hundred days' sacrifice. This explanation
appears very good at the first sight, and as a matter of fact it
has been accepted by all writers on the sacrificial ceremonies.
In support of it, we may also cite the fact that as the moon was
the measurer of time in ancient days, the night was then natu-
rally more marked than the day, and instead of saying
'so many days' men often spoke of 'so many nights,' much
in the same way as we now use the word 'fort-night.' This
is no doubt good so far as it goes; but the question is
why should there be no Soma sacrifices of a longer duration
than one hundred nights? and why a gap, a serious gap, is left

212 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
in the series of Soma sacrifices after one hundred nights' Sattra
until we come to the annual Sattra of 360 days? Admitting that
'night' means 'day,' we have Soma sacrifices lasting from 1 to
100 days; and if so, where was the harm to complete the series
until the yearly Sattra of 360 days was reached? So far as I
know, no writer on sacrificial ceremonies has attempted to answer
this question satisfactorily. Of course, adopting the speculative
manner of the Brâhmaṇas, we might say that there are no Soma
sacrifices of longer than one hundred nights' duration, because the
life of a man cannot extend beyond a hundred years, (Tait. Br.
III, 8, 16, 2). But such an explanation can never be regarded
as satisfactory, and the Mîmâṁsakas, who got over one difficulty
by interpreting 'night' into 'day,' have practically left this latter
question untouched, and, therefore, unsolved. In short, the
case stands thus :—the sacrificial literature mentions a series
of 99, or practically one hundred Soma sacrifices, called the
'night-sacrifices'; but these do not form a part of any annual
Sattra, like the Gavâm-ayanam, nor is any reason assigned for their
separate existence, nor is their duration, which never exceeds
a hundred nights, accounted for. Neither the authors of the
Brâhmaṇas nor those of the Shrauta Sûtras, much less Sâyaṇa and
Yâska give us any clue to the solution of this question; and the
Mîmâṁsakas, after explaining the word 'night' occurring in the
names of these sacrifices as equal to 'day' have allowed these
night-sacrifices to remain as an isolated group in the organ-
ised system of Soma sacrifices. Under these circumstances
it would, no doubt, appear presumptuous for any one to suggest
an explanation, so many centuries after what may be called
the age of the Sattras. But I feel that the Arctic theory,
which, we have seen, is supported by strong independent evi-
dence, not only explains, but appropriately accounts for the
original existence of this isolated series of a hundred Soma sa-
crifices; and I, therefore, proceed to give my view on the point.

THE COWS' WALK. 213
It seems to me that if the word râtri in Ati-râtra is still
understood to mean 'night,' and that if the Ati-râtra sacrifice
is even now performed during the night, there is no reason why
we should not similarly interpret the same word in Dvi-râtra,
Tri râtra &c. upto Shata-râtra. The objection, that the Soma
juice is not extracted during the night, is more imaginary than
real; for as a matter of fact Soma libations are made in the usual
way, during the Ati-râtra sacrifice. The Ati-râtra sacrifice is
performed at the beginning and the end of every Sattra; and all
the three libations of Soma are always offered during the three
turns, or paryâyas, of the night. The Aitareya Brâhmaṇa (IV, 5),
in explaining the origin of this sacrifice, tells us that the Asuras
had taken shelter with the night, and the Devas, who had taken
shelter with the day, wanted to expel them from the dark region.
But amongst the Devas, Indra alone was found ready and willing
to undertake this task; and entering into darkness, he, with the
assistance of metres, turned the Asuras out of the first part of
the night by the first Soma libation, while by means of the middle
turn (paryâya) of passing the Soma-cup, the Asuras were turned
out of the middle part, and by the third turn out of the third or
the last part of the night. The three Soma libations, here
spoken of, are all made during the night, and the Brâhmaṇa
further observes that there is no other deity save Indra and the
Metres to whom they are offered, (Cf. Âpas. Sh. Su. XIV, 3, 12).
The next section of the Brâhmaṇa (IV, 6) distinctly raises the
question, "How are the Pavamâna Stotras (to be chanted for
the purification of the Soma juice) provided for the night,
whereas such Stotras refer only to the day, but not to the
night?" and answers it by stating that the Stotras are the
same for the day and the night. It is clear from this that
Soma juice was extracted and purified at night during the
Ati-râtra sacrifice, and Indra was the only deity to whom the

214 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.
libations were offered in order to help him in his fight with the
Asuras, who had taken shelter with the darkness of the night.
That the Ati-râtra is an ancient sacrifice is further proved by the
occurrence of a similar ceremony in the Parsi scriptures. The
word Ati-râtra does not occur in the Avesta, but in the Vendîdad,
XVIII, 18 (43)–22 (48), we are told that there are three parts of
the night, and that in the first of these parts (thrishvai), Fire, the
son of Ahura Mazda, calls upon the master of the house to arise
and put on his girdle and to fetch clean wood in order that he
may burn bright ; for, says the Fire, “Here comes Azi (Sans. Ahi),
made by the Daêvas (Vedic Asuras), who is about to strive against
me, and wants to put out my life.” And the same request is
made during the second and the third part of the night. The
close resemblance between this and the three paryâyas of the
Ati-râtra sacrifice does not seem to have been yet noticed : but
whether noticed or not, it shows that the Ati-râtra is an ancient
rite performed during the night for the purpose of helping
Indra, or the deity that fought with the powers of darkness,
and that such sacrificial acts as putting on the girdle (kosti) or
squeezing the Soma, were performed during this period of dark-
ness.
Now what applies to the sacrifice of a single night may
well be extended to cases where sacrifices had to be performed
for two, three or more continuous nights. I have already
shown before that the ancient sacrificers completed their sacri-
ficial sessions in ten months, and a long night followed the com-
pletion of these sacrifices. What did the sacrificers do during
this long night ? They could not have slept all the time ; and
as a matter of fact we know that the people in the extreme
north of Europe and Asia do not, even at present, sleep
during the whole of the long night which occurs in their
part of the globe. Paul Du Chaillu, who has recently (1900)
published an account of his travels in The Land of the