प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

124      EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA      [Ch.
near modern Wala in Kathiawar, was the capital of
an important kingdom and a port of international
trade with numerous warehouses full of rarest
merchandise. During the 7th century, however, it
was more famous as a seat of learning. I-tsing
informs us that its fame rivalled with that of
Nālandā in eastern India;¹ it is however a pity that
he should not have given us any details about its
literary and educational activity. There were about
a hundred Buddhist monasteries at the place in
c. 640 A.D.²; and they accommodated six thousand
monk-students. The famous Buddhist scholars,
Sthiramati and Guṇamati, were the leading scholars
of the University at the middle of the 7th
century A.D.³ Like Nālandā, Valabhi also was not
an exclusively Buddhist or monastic centre of learning.
Even Brahmanas from the distant Gangetic plain
used to send their sons to that place for higher
education⁴. Graduates at Valabhi used to be appointed
to posts in the executive line (I-tsing, p. 177); this
would have been impossible if secular subjects like
law, economics, accountancy and literature had not
been cultivated at the place. The University was
famous for its catholicity and intellectual freedom.

1. P. 177.
2. Watters, II p. 246.
3. A copper plate grant given in 580 A.D. to a monastery
   founded by Sthiramati has been found ; I.A., VI, p. 11.
4. अन्तर्वेद्यामभूत्पूर्वं वसुदत्त इहि द्विजः ।
   विष्णुदत्ताभिधानश्च पुत्रस्तस्योपपद्यत ॥
   स विष्णुदत्तो वयसा पूर्णषोडशवत्सरः ।
   गंतुं प्रवृत्ते विद्याप्राप्तये वलभीपुरम् ॥   K. S. S. Chap.
                        XXXII, 42-43.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 125
We are told that the scholars from all parts of India
used to assemble at Valabhi and stay there for at
least two or three years to discuss ‘possible and
impossible doctrines.’ They used to become famous
for their wisdom when they were assured of the
correctness of their opinions by the doctors at Valabhi.
The names of the famous scholars of the University
were written in white on its lofty gates. (Ibid.,
pp. 176-7).
Financial support: Valabhi was a rich city; it
had a hundred citizens ‘whose wealth amounted
to a million’. The University used to receive
considerable support from these merchant princes.
The Maitraka kings who were ruling there
during c. 480 to 775 A. D., were also great
patrons of learning; they used to give direct
grants for the purpose of meeting the general expenses
of the University as also for strengthening its library¹.
Scholars who completed their educational course at
the University used to receive either appointments
in government service or some financial help to enable
them to start their life². This continued to be the
case till c. 775 A. D. when the reigning dynasty
succumbed to an Arab attack, which resulted in the
destruction of the city and of the University.
VIKRAMŚĪLĀ³
An International University : Vikramaśilā monas-

1. सद्धर्मस्य पुस्तकोपचयार्थम् । I. A., VII., p. 67 ff.
2. I-tsing, p. 177.
3. Tibetan sources inform us that this monastery was
   situated in Bihar on a hill on the right bank of the Ganges. Mr. De's
   identification of Vikramasīlā with Patharaghata hill, 24 miles to the
   east of Bhagalpur, seems to be correct. The place is full of ancient
   and extensive ruins, and may yield a rich reward to the excavator.
   J. A. S. B., N. S., V, p. 7.

126 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
tery, founded by king Dharmapāla in the 8th century,
was a famous centre of international learning for more
than four centuries. King Dharmapāla (c. 775-
800 A. D.) was its founder; he built temples and
monasteries at the place and liberally endowed them.
He also erected several halls for the lecturing work.
His successors continued to patronise the University
down to the 13th century.¹ The monks of the
establishment were usually distinguished scholars and
the fame of the monastery soon spread beyond the
Himalayas. There was continuous intercourse going
on between Tibet and Vikramaśīlā for four centuries.
A special guest house was maintained for the use of
Tibetan scholars coming to learn at the feet of Indian
Pandits.² One cannot help admiring the continuous
tradition of high scholarship that was maintained at
Vikramaśīlā throughout its history. Tibetan sources
inform us that Buddha, Jñānapāda, Vairochana,
Rakshita, Jetārī Ratnākara-Śānti, Jñāna-śrī-mitra,
Ratnavajra, Abhayankaragupta, Tathāgata-rakshita
and a host of other Vikramaśīlā scholars wrote
numerous books in Sanskrit and translated scores
of them in Tibetan. The most distinguished in this
galaxy of Vikramaśīlā scholars was undoubtedly
Dīpaṅkara Śrī-Jñāna, more commonly known as
Upādhyāya Atīśa, who flourished in the 11th century
A.D. He went to Tibet at the invitation of its king
Chan Chūb and played an important part in the
reformation of the Buddhism of that country. As
many as 200 books, both original and in translation,
have been attributed to him by the Tibetan tradition.³

1. Bose, Indian Teachers, pp. 30 ff.
2. Das, Indian Pandits in the Land of Snow, p. 58.
3. Bose, Indian Teachers, pp. 32-105.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 127
Strength of the University : When there was
such a distinguished galaxy of scholars at Vikramaśīlā,
it is but natural that the numerical strength of the
establishment should have enormously increased by
the number of scholars attracted to the establishment.
In the 12th century there were 3,000 monk scholars
residing at the place.¹ The college possessed a rich
and extensive library, which excited admiration even
of its Muslim destroyers.
General Administration : The administrative
management of the Vikramaśīlā establishment was
entrusted by the Pāla rulers to a board of six monks
presided over by the chief abbot. Different members
of the board were assigned different administrative
duties like the ordination of the novices, supply and
supervision of servants, distribution of food and fuel,
assignment of monastic work, etc. Monk professors
led a simple life, the cost of maintaining one of them
being equal to the cost of supporting four ordinary
monks.²
Academic administration : Academic adminis-
tration was vested in a council of six dvārapaṇḍitas
presided over by the chief abbot. The function of the
Dvārapaṇḍita was to test the scholarship of those
seeking admission to the college. During the reign of
king Kanaka (?), the following were the Dvāra-
paṇḍitas of the establishment :—
Eastern Gate : Āchārya Ratnākara-śānti
Western „ : Vāgīśvara-kīrti of Benares
Northern „ : Naropa
Southern „ : Prajnākara-mati
First Central Gate : Ratna-vajra of Kashmir

1. Ibid, p. 84.
2. Ibid, p. 85.

128 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
Second Central Gate : Jñān-śrī-mitra of Gauda¹
Courses of Study and degrees : Grammar, logic,
metaphysics, Tantras and ritualism were the main
subjects specialised at the institution. The curriculum
was thus not so wide or catholic as that at Nālandā,
outlined above. Unfortunately we have no informa-
tion of the duration or the gradation of the course at
Vikramaśīlā, but there is every probability that it was
more systematically organised than was the case at
any other centre of ancient Indian education. For,
unlike at any other college, we find diplomas and titles
being given to the Vikramaśīlā students at the end
of their course by the reigning kings of Bengal.
Tibetan authorities inform us that Jetāri and
Ratnavajra had received degrees at the hands of kings
Mahīpāla and Kanaka respectively.² The memory
of the distinguished alumni of the place was kept ever
green in the mind of the congregation by their pictures
being put on the walls of the college halls This
honour is known to have been shown to Nāgārjuna
and Atīśa.
Destruction of the University : In 1203, the
Vikramaśīlā monastery was destroyed by the
Mahomadens under Bakhtyar Khilji, who seem to
have mistaken it for a fort. At that time Śākya-
śrī-bhadra was at the helm of the monastic affairs.
The account of the destruction of the monastery has
been preserved by the author of Tabākāt-i-nāsiri. We
read, ‘The greater number of the inhabitants of the
place were Brahmanas (i. e. Buddhist Bhikshus) and
the whole of these Brahmanas had their heads
shaven, and they were all slain. There were a great
number of books on the religion of the Hindus there,

1. Vidyabhushana, History of Indian Logic, p. 520.
2. Bose, Indian Teachers, p, 47, p. 61

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 129
and when all these books came under the observation
of the Mussalmans, they summoned a number of
Hindus that they might give them information
respecting the import of these books; but the whole
of the Hindus had been killed. On becoming
acquainted (with the contents of those books), it was
found that the whole fortress and city was a college'.¹
Śākya-śrī-bhadra and a few others, who escaped the
general slaughter, fled to Tibet. Such was the tragic
end of this famous college.
OTHER BUDDHIST CENTRES OF LEARNING
Other Monasteries as Centres of Learning :
From stray and casual references in the Life and
Travells of Yuan Chwang, we learn that (1) Jayendra
monastery near the capital of Kashmir, (2 & 3)
Chinapati and Jallandar monasteries in the Punjab,
(4) Matipur monastery in Bijnor district, U. P., (5)
Bhadra monastery near Kanauj, (6) a monastery in
Hiraṇya (?) country, and (7) and another at Amraoti
in Andhra country were notable centres of learning
in the 7th century.² At most of these monasteries
Yuan Chwang stayed for several months in order to
study Buddhist works and get their copies. Their
presiding abbots were distinguished authors, widely
known in the country. At the time of Yuan Chwang's
visit in the 7th century we must remember that
Buddhism was on the decline in the country, and yet
so many monasteries were flourishing centres of
Buddhist learning. Budhism continued to be strong in
Bihar and Bengal down to the 12th century A. D. and
we find monasteries in that province like those at
Odantapuri and Jagadalla Vihar (founded by king

1. Raverty's translation of Tabākāt-i-Nāsiri, Vol. I, p. 552;
   (1881).
2. See Life, pp. 69-70, 77, 81, 84, 127 and 137 respectively.
   9

130 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
Rāmapāla at his capital Rāmāvtī) were famous centres
of learning, spreading the holy knowledge both in India
and abroad. We would not be wrong if we assume
that during the days of Buddhist ascendancy, at least
ten per cent of the well-endowed monasteries were
respectable centres of learning and education, at least
of the status of modern degree colleges. The
contribution of Buddhism to the cause of learning
and education was thus very great.
HINDU TEMPLE COLLEGES.
Introduction : We have seen already how edu-
cational activity became a part of the daily monastic
life fairly early in the history of Buddhism. It is,
however, only from the 10th century that we get
evidence of Hindu temples becoming centres of higher
education. It is however quite possible that temples
began to undertake educational work much earlier,
though we have yet no evidence on the point. The
causes that led to this new development have been
indicated already at pp. 72-3.
SALOTGI TEMPLE COLLEGE.
A Famous and Free College : The village of
Salotgi in Bijapur District of the Bombay Presidency
was a famous centre, probably of Vedic learning, in the
10th and 11th centuries A. D. The Sanskrit college
that flourished at this place must have existed for a
long time, for it eventually transformed the original
name of the place, Pāviṭṭage, into Sālotgi, which is an
abbreviated and Prakritised compound of Śālā and
Pāviṭṭage. The college was located in a spacious
hall, attached to the temple of Trayī-Purusha, which
was built by Nārāyaṇa, a minister of the Rāshtrakūṭa
emperor Kṛishṇa III. Owing to its far spread fame for
efficiency, the college could attract students from

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 131
different parts of the country. The strength of the
college is not known, but it seems that 27 houses
were necessary for lodging the students. An
endowment of 12 Nivartanas (probably equal to 60
acres) of land was made for meeting the lighting
charges of the boarding houses.¹ The students were
offered free boarding, an endowment of 500
Nivartanas having been received for that purpose. It
would appear that at least 200 students were offered
free boarding, lodging and education at this institution.
The salary of the principal was provided for by
another endowment of 50 Nivartanas. The inscription
is silent about the salaries of the other teachers.
Public Support : The inhabitants of the village
were not slow to appreciate the benefits of the
institution; they had agreed to offer to the college a
donation of five rupees at every marriage, of two and
half rupees at every Upanayana and of a rupee and
quarter at every tonsure ceremony. Besides whenever

1. The relevant verses from the inscription are given below :—
   नारायणोऽभिधानेन नारायण इवापरः ।
   प्रधानः कृष्णराजस्य मन्त्री सन्सन्धिविग्रहे ॥
   तेनेयं कारिता शाला श्रीविशाला मनोरमा ।
   अत्र विद्यार्थिनः संति नानाजनपदोद्भवाः ।
   शालाविद्यार्थिसंघाय दत्तवान्भूमिमुत्तमाम् ।
   मान्यां निवर्तनानां तु पंचभिश्च शतैर्मिताम् ॥
   निवर्तनानि दीपार्थं मान्यानि द्वादशैव च ।
   पंच पुष्पाणि देयानि विवाहे सति तज्जनैः ।
   देयं तथोपनयने विवाहे यत्पुरोदितम् ॥
   केनचित्कारणेनेह कर्तव्ये विप्रभोजने ।
   भोजयेत्तु यथाशक्ति परिषदत्परिशज्जनम् ॥ EI V p. 60. I.,

132 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
a feast was given in the village, the host was expected
to invite as many teachers and students as possible.
A later inscription from the same place informs us that
when the college hall built by the minister of Kṛishṇa
III in 945 A. D. crumbled down in the next century,
it was rebuilt by a local magnate.
ENNĀYIRAM TEMPLE COLLEGE.¹
The Strength of the College; Subjects Taught :
At the beginning of the 11th century A. D. there
existed a famous and well organised college at
Ennāyiram in South Arcott district, which was an
educational institution of the modern type, with a
staff of sixteen teachers, engaged in teaching a pre-
determined curriculum. The local village community
had endowed the college with 300 acres of landed
property, thus enabling its authorities to offer free
tuition, boarding and lodging to 340 students. The
admission of students was governed by the principle
of the reservation of a fixed number of seats for
different subjects. Thus 75 seats were reserved for
the Ṛigveda and Black Yajurveda each, 40 seats for
the Sāmaveda, 20 for the White Yajurveda, 10 for
the Atharvaveda, Baudhāyana Dharmasūtra and
Vedānta each, 25 for grammar, 35 for Mīmānsā and
40 for Rūpāvatāra (?). The institution was thus
predominently a Vedic college.
Number of Teachers : For the Ṛigveda and Black
Yajurveda, there were three teachers each, for the
Mīmānsā two, and for the rest of the subjects one
each. There were 16 teachers for 340 students, and
so the average number of students per teacher was
about 22. Students therefore must have received

1. S. I. E. R. for 1918, p. 145, Inscription No. 333 for 1917

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 133
personal attention and instructions. Big classes like
those existing in modern colleges were unknown.
Maintenance Allowance to Students : The college
supplied free boarding to students, and we have
interesting information about the rations allowed per
head. Each Vedic student received about one seer
of rice per day and this quantity was sufficient for
the daily meals. He also received annually an
allowances of about one eighth tola of gold, which was
probably intended to cover the clothing expenses.
The allowance for the students of grammar and
philosophy was about 66 per cent higher; the reason
for this preferential treatment is not clear.
The Salaries of Teachers : The normal allowance
for the teachers of the college was about 16 seers of
rice every day. The cost of an ordinary meal was
about half a seer of rice ; an ordinary Sanskrit teacher
was thus getting as his salary about three times the
amount necessary for the food expenses of a family
of five. He was thus receiving a salary just sufficient
for his normal family responsibilities. He was neither
rolling in riches nor suffering from abject poverty.
Philosophy (Vedānta) was apparently regarded as a
difficult subject, for the salary of the teacher of the
subject was 25 percent higher.
TIRUMUKKUDAL TEMPLE COLLEGE.¹
General Organisation : During the 11th century,
Venkatesh Perumal Temple at Tirumukkudal in
Chingleput district was a very interesting institution,
for it was running a college, a hostel and a hospital.
The college was a smaller institution than the one

1. E. I., XXI, No. 220.

134 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
at Ennāyiram, for arrangement was here made for
the free boarding and lodging of 60 students only.
Out of the 60 seats in the hostel, 10 were reserved
for the students of the Ṛigveda, 10 for those of the
Yajurveda, 20 for those of grammar, 10 for those of
the Pañcha-rātra system, 3 for those of Śaivāgama
and 7 for Vānaprasthas and Sanyāsins. All the
students in the hostel were provided with oil for bath
every Saturday.
Teachers’ Salaries : The teachers’ salaries in this
institution were lower than those in the Ennāyiram
college. Vedic teachers used to receive only about
three seers of rice every day ; their salary was thus
about one sixth the salary that was paid in the
Ennāyiram college. Vedic teachers of this institution
were apparently part-time teachers ; for their salary
is seen to be practically the same as the wages of the
servant appointed in the temple hospital for fetching
medicinal herbs and preparing medicines. The
grammar teacher was apparently a full time employee,
for he received about eight seers of rice every day.
His pay was thus half the pay of the teacher at
Ennāyiram. In ancient as in modern times, salaries
of teachers varied with the financial condition of
educational institutions.
TIRUVORRIYUR TEMPLE COLLEGE¹
A Grammar College in Memory of Panini :
During the 13th century there was a big grammar
college at Tiruvorriyur in Chingleput district. The
college was located in a big hall adjoining the local
Śiva temple. There was a tradition current in the
locality, that God Śiva had appeared in this very

1. S. I. E. R. for 1912, No. 201 of 1912

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 135
temple before Pāṇini for fourteen continuous days in,
order to teach him the first fourteen aphorisms ; the
village community had therefore organised an efficient
grammar college in the Śiva temple to commemorate
the event. The college was a much bigger institution
than the Ennāyiram college. In the latter place an
endowment of 300 acres had enabled the organisers
to arrange for the free food and education of 340
students. The Tiruvorriyur college had received an
endowment of 400 acres; we may not be therefore
far wrong in assuming that this grammar college must
have had more than 450 students on its rolls. The
number of teachers was probably about 15 to 20.
This college went on performing its functions down
to the 14th century ; for a record, about a century later
than the previous one, mentions how certain additional
taxes were assigned for the upkeep of the grammar
college.¹ Details about the management of this
college are not available.
MALKAPURAM TEMPLE COLLEGE.
A Temple, College, Hostel and Hospital combined:
An inscription from Malkapuram, dated 1268 A. D.,²
reveals the existence of an institution which was
a temple, a college, a hostel and a hospital combined.
There were eight teachers in the college, three for the
Vedas and five for the secular subjcets consisting of
grammar, literature, logic and Āgamas. There was
one doctor in charge of the hospital. In the south
Indian colleges we have seen so far, there used to be
about 20 students on the average under the charge
of each teacher. The Malkapuram college therefore
had probably about 150 students. They were as usual
offered free tuition, boarding, lodging and medicine.

1. Ibid, No. 110 of 1912
2. S. I. E. R., for 1917. pp. 122-24

136 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
Teachers' pay : Each teacher was given an
endowment of two puṭṭis of land. We do not know
anything about the net income of this land endowment.
The inscription, however, states that the carpenters
and drummers of the temple establishment were
assigned one puṭṭi of land for their wages. The
teacher's income was thus twice the wages of the
skilled labourer. The society was offering him just
what was necessary for a decent family life. The
salary of the principal was 100 nishkas; it is difficult
to assess its real value as the denotation of the term
nishka at this period is not definitely known.
SOMES OTHER TEMPLE COLLEGS
Temple Colleges fairly common in south India :
We have got somewhat detailed information about the
free Sanskrit colleges that were organised in the five
temple establishments mentioned above. There are,
however, clear indications that there were many more
similar temple colleges in the Deccan in the medieval
times (c. 900—1400 A. D.). Thus at Hebbal in
Dharwar district there existed a Maṭha in Bhuja-
bbeśvara temple in the 10th century A. D., which
had received an endowment of about two hundred
acres of land for giving free tuition and boarding
to students. About 200 students must have been
receiving free education here.¹ At Nagai in Nizam's
dominions, there existed a big temple Sanskrit college
in the 11th century where two hunndred students were
instructed in Vedic lore, two hundred in Smṛitis, one
hundred in epics, and fifty two in philosophy. The lib-
rary of the institute employed six librarians.² In 1075

1. E. I., IV, p. 355.
2. Hyd. Arch.. S., No. 8, p. 7.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 137
A.D., a temple at Bijapur received a big endowment
of about 1200 acres of land for providing food and
raiments to ascetics and to the pupils of Yogeśvara
Paṇḍita, who was conducting a free Mīmānsā school
there.¹ To judge from the endowment, the college of
this Paṇḍita must have been much bigger than that at
Ennāyiram. At Managoli in Bijapur district, during the
latter half of the 12th century, a local temple used to
maintain a grammar school where Kaumāra grammar
was taught by a teacher, who was given an endowment
of 20 acres of land². At about the same time the
Dakshiṇeśvara temple authorities at Belgamve in
Karnatak used to offer free boarding to students
studying in the temple school.³ In 1158 A. D. there
flourished at Talgund in Shimoga district a small
Sanskrit college in the local Prāṇeśvara temple, where
free food and education was offered to 48 students,
studying the Ṛigveda, the Yajurveda, the Sāmaveda,
Prābhākara-Mīmānsā, philosophy (Vedānta), linguistics
(Bhāshā-śāstra) and Canarese. The institution had
employed two cooks to manage the kitchen of the
boarding house. At Punnavayil in Tanjore District
there existed another grammar college, attached to
a local temple and endowed with 400 acres of land.
As the endowment for the maintenance of this
institution was larger than that enjoyed by the
Ennāyiram college, it is quite likely that it may have
afforded free education and food to about 500
students.⁴ South Indian Inscriptions Nos. 604, 667,
571, and 695 of 1916 record various grants for the
salaries of teachers and boarding of students studying

1. I. A., X, pp. 129-31.
2. E. I., V, p. 22.
3. E. C., L. No. 45.
4. S. I. E. R. for 1918, pp. 109-110.

138 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
in different temple colleges in Tamil country. The
last of these records is an interesting one, for it records
a donation for a Sarasvatī-bhavana or library of a temple
college in Tinevelli district. These instances of temple
authorities organising Sanskrit schools and colleges are
typical of the age. Many more must have existed,
whose memory has not been handed down to the present
times. For, down to the 18th century almost every
religious centre in south India used to maintain a
Sanskrit school or college. The whole country was
in fact studded with them¹.
Temple colleges in northern India : Instances of
temple colleges given above all hail from South India.
It is not however correct to suppose that no such
institutions existed in north India, because they are
not referred to in any north Indian inscriptions. A
very large number of north Indian temples have been
destroyed, along with their documents of antiquity,
during the Muslim invasions and rule. If all the
documents conveying extensive properties to most of
the rich temples in north India are recovered, it would
be almost certainly found that a considerable portion
of the temple property was originally intended for
educational purposes. Temple authorities used to
discharge their duty to impart education ; one of
the reasons that impelled Aurangzeb to destroy Hindu
temples was the report that Brahmanas of Sindh,
Multan and Benares were using their temples as
schools. It is thus clear that in North India also,
the important temples were centres of education
throughout the middle ages.

1. Report of the Madras Committee, Education Commission, 1882
   p. 1, foot-note.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 139.
AGRAHĀRA VILLAGES AS CENTRES OF
LEARNING.
What is an Agrahara Village? : On auspicious
occasions, kings used to invite learned Brahmanas,
settle them in villages and assign their revenues to
them for their maintenance. Such villages were called
Agrahāra villages, and they naturally became centres
of learning where higher education was imparted free
in different branches of Sanskrit studies. We shall give
here information about two such Agrahāra villages,
which were typical of their class.
Kadiyur Agrahara : The village of Kādiyur, modern
Kalas, in Dharwar district in Karnatak, was made an
Agrahāra village in the 10th century by the Rāshtrakūṭa
administration, and assigned to 200 Brahmanas, who
were well versed in Vedas, grammar, Purāṇas, logic
works on polity, the science of literary composition
and the art of writing commentaries.¹ The village
was famous as an efficient centre of education and
its Brahmana residents naturally were proud of its
reputation. It may be pointed out that the
educational activity of this Brahmana centre was not
confined to the Vedic studies only; poetics, grammar,
logic, Purāṇas and the political science were included
in the curriculum. An endowment had been also
received for the salaries of some teachers. A free
feeding house was maintained in the village; it was
most probably intended for the poor students studying
in the local institution.
Sarvajnapura Agrahara : Sarvajñapura (modern
Arsikere in Hassan District, Mysore) was another
Agrahāra village, which, as its name would indicate,

1. E. I., XIII. p. 317.

140 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
was a famous centre of learning. An inscription
discovered at this place gives us a graphic description
of its literary and pedagogic activities. "In some
of its streets the Brahmanas were reading the Vedas,
Śāstras and six systems of philosophy; every group
of Brahmanas was either reading the Vedas or
engaged in listening to the exposition of some higher
science, or carrying on ceaseless discussion on logic,
or joyously reciting the Purāṇas or settling the meaning
of the Smṛitis, drama or poetry. All the Brahmanas
of Sarvajñapura were devoted to study, teaching and
listening to the dictates of religion and morality."¹
Numerous centres of Higher Education: The
above two Agrahāra villages were but typical of their
class. As a rule in every Agrahāra village free
instructions were given in different branches of
Sanskrit learning by the Brahmana donees in return
for the provision made for their livelihood by the state
or sociey.² Sometimes non-Agrahāra villages also,
like Bāhur, 15 miles south of Pondichery, were
important centres of higher education receiving grants
of the revenues of several villages because they were
famous centres of well-known scholars, hailing from
all parts of the country.³ Agrahāra villages and
endowed temples and monasteries were fairly
numerous in ancient India; there used to be at least
two or three of them in an area equal to the modern
district. We may therefore well conclude that

1. E. C., V, p. 144.
2. Cf. एतेषु किलाग्रहारेषु केचिजपन्ति । अपरे पाठयन्ति ।
   केचित्पठन्ति । अन्ये तत्त्वविद्यामुपदिशन्ति । इतरे अध्यापयन्ति । पश्य
   पश्य । Keralābharaṇam.
3. E. I., XVIII, p. 14.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 141
centres for higher education were more numerous in
medieval times (c. 600-1300 A. D.) than they are
today in modern India.
Tols : Before concluding this chapter, it will be
necessary to refer to Tols or Sanskrit schools which
are still fairly numerous in Bengal, Bihar and United
Provinces. From very early times, Tols have enjoyed
grants of land, on which their teachers and pupils
subsisted. These grants were augmented in value and
new ones were created when the Zemindars felt
themselves secure by the Permanent Settlement of
Cornwalis¹. Where there was no specific endowment,
the village Pandit used to arrange for the free boarding,
lodging and clothing of his students by collecting the
necessary funds by raising subscriptions at chief fairs
and festivals, and from rich charitable persons. Tols
thus are a variety of the Agrahāra type of educational
institutions.
The classes are usually held in a thatched house.
As a rule, each Tol enrolls about 25 students, who
are accommodated in mud huts built round the school
house. Study courses usually extend over six to
eight years and enable the students to appear for the
Praveśikā or Admission examination in Sanskrit.
Tradition of free Education : It is indeed
noteworthy that such tradition of free education should
have persisted in spite of foreign rule of several
centuries. Learned Brahmanas in India have always
been anxious to impart education free to deserving
students irrespective of their own financial condition.
This tradition exists even today in ancient centres of

1. Report of the Bengal Provincial Committee, Education
   Commission, 1882.

142 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
Sanskrit education like Benares, Nasik, Wai and
Nadia. The conclusion therefore seems to be
irresistible that in the ancient and medieval periods of
Indian history, every student, howsoever poor he may
have been, could get the highest education free,
provided he was willing, if necessary, to do some
manual or menial work for his teacher. Poor parents
had not to worry about the educational expenses; their
sons could either find admission to free boarding
houses or maintain themselves by begging their food
daily, which was regarded as the most honorable
means of livelihood.

Chapter VI.
HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION.:
Curriculum, method of teaching and examinations.
Subjects and methods of study in the early Vedic period- And in
the later Vedic period-The method of study changes at c. 1000 B. C.
New topics of study-Combination of liberal and useful education-
Vedic studies in the 1st millennium A D —An age of specialisation-
Ascendancy of Sanskrit-Courses in grammar, astrology, literature,
Smritis, Purāṇas, logic and philosophy-Courses for laymen and monks
in Buddhist colleges-Selection of text-books.
Method of teaching and study-Books normally not available,
hence the oral method of instruction-Importance of recitation and
recapitulation-Texts memorised bnt not crammed-Great importance
attached to exposition and debate-Individual attention-Help of
monitors-No annual or final examinations-No degrees and diplomas-
Competitive element kept within limit.
Introductory : The history of ancient Indian
education is spread over several millennia and we
therefore naturally find considerable changes taking
place in the curricula in the course of centuries. This
is but natural ; for the curriculum is intimately
connected with the achievements and aspirations of a
people. When the outlook on life changes or when
new branches of knowledge are developed, extensive
changes become inevitable in the curriculum followed
in schools and colleges. In the present chapter, we
shall indicate the main topics of study on the literary
side, point out the changes in the curricula that took
place in the different ages, discuss the methods of
study and teaching and ascertain what importance
was attached to examinations.
EARLY VEDIC AGE (C. upto 1500 B. C.)
Subjects of Study : The Vedic literature naturally