प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 115
(c. 475-500 A.D.) added one monastery each to the
establishment.¹ Vajra, an unidentified successor of
Bālāditya, and another unnamed king of central India
added two further monasteries to the establishment.
New buildings continued to be erected by Hindu and
Buddhist donors down to the 11th century.
The Lay-out and Buildings: Excavations have
shown that Nālandā University covered an area at
least one mile long and half a mile broad. Monastic
buildings and stūpas attached to them were built
according to a preconcieved plan; they were all
arranged in a row and not huddled together in any
haphazard fashion. The central college had seven
halls attached to it; besides there were 300 smaller
rooms for the lecturing work. The buildings were
superb, several storeys in height. Hwui Li's statement
that the upper rooms towered above the clouds and
enabled a spectator to see how they changed their
shape is of course an exaggeration, but it has now
received an unexpected corroboration from a con-
temporary record which also avers that the tops of the
buildings at Nālandā touched the clouds.² We may
therefore take it that the towers and turrets of the
colleges, temples and monasteries at Nālandā must
have been of impressive height. There were also deep
and translucent ponds covered with blue lotuses,
which added to the beauty of the place and supplied
water and flowers to the establishment. The whole

1. The sequence of these rulers and their time, given both by
   Yuan Chwang and his biographer, seem to be wrong. See Watters, II
   p. 164; Life, pp. 110-111.
2. यस्यामम्बुधरावलेहिशिखरश्रेणी विहारावली।
   मालेवोर्ध्वविराजिनी विरचिता धात्रा मनोज्ञा भुवः ॥ E.I., XX, p. 48

116 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
colony was surrounded by an encircling wall with a
door in the southern side.¹
Boarding and Lodging Arrangement: Monk-
students were lodged in monasteries specially built
for the purpose. Recent excavations have so far
revealed the existence of thirteen such monasteries,
and a glance at the topography shows that some
more must have existed. Monasteries were at least
two storeys in height and had both single-seated
and double-seated rooms in them. Each room had
one stone cot for each occupant and was also provided
with nitches for lamp, books, etc. In one corner of the
court-yard of each monastery, a well has been
unearthed, showing that the problem of water supply
was not overlooked. Rooms were assigned to the
monk-students according to their seniority and
redistribution took place every year. Hearths of
huge dimensions have been discovered in each
monastery, showing that the messing arrangements
were common. The University had received 200 rich
villages as endowment² and so could offer free boarding
and clothing to its students. The usual practice in
Buddhist monasteries was to offer these facilities to
lay students, only if they agreed to perform some
menial service.³ It is however possible that Nālandā
may have offered free lodging and boarding to its

1. Beal, The Life of Hiuen Tsang (by Shaman Hwui) pp. 109-
   114; Watters, II, pp. 164-171 and Itsing, pp. 30, 65, 86, and 154 are
   the main sources of information about Nālandā.
2. This is the number given by I-tsing, who had stayed at
   Nālandā for 10 years. Yuan-Chwang's biographer mentions only 100
   villages in this connection. More villages may have been received in
   the interval between the two writers.
3. I-tsing, p. 106. In medieval Christian monasteries, the
   practice was to offer free tuition to all those who intended to join the
   Order; the laity was expected to pay small voluntary fee for the
   education of its children. Graves, A History, p. 81.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 117
lay students also,—who were usually Hindus,—in view
of its having received so many endowments from
Hindu patrons.
The Number of Scholars : When I-tsing was
living at Nālandā (c. 675 A.D.), there were more than
3,000 monks residing in the establishment (p. 154).
The biographer of Yuan Chwang states that in the
second quarter of the seventh century the number of
the residents of Nālandā would always reach 10,000
(p. 112). The biographer had never been to India
and his information therefore was second hand. His
figure seems to be a little exaggerated since it is given
in round numbers, and since Yuan Chwang himself
simply observes that there were some thousand brethren
residing at the place (II p. 165). It would, however,
seem certain that the actual number of the monks
staying at Nālandā must have been at least about 5,000
towards the middle of the 7th century A. D.
Both a Monastery and a University : Nālandā,
however, was not a mere monastery ; it had obtained
so wide a fame primarily because it was a very
famous centre of learning. Yuan Chwang says, 'In
the establishment were some thousand brethren, all
men of great learning and ability, several hundreds
being highly esteemed and famous ; the brethren were
very strict in observing the precepts and regulations
of their order ; learning and discussing they found
the day too short, day and night they admonished
each other, juniors and seniors mutually helping to
perfection. Hence foreign students came to the
establishment to put an end to their doubts and then
became celebrated, and those who stole the name (of
Nālandā) were all treated with respect wherever they
went' (II, p. 165). The names of deep scholars and
skilful debators, who had distinguished themselves at

118 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
the University, used to be written in white on the
lofty gate of the University for being known to every
fresher and visitor (Itsing, p, 176).
High Standard of Piety and Scholarship: The
head abbots of Nālandā used to be as much
celebrated for piety as for scholarship. Amongst
them were ‘Dharmapāla and Chandrapāla, who gave
a fragrance to the Buddha’s teachings, Guṇamati
and Sthiramati of excellent reputation among
contemporaries, Prabhāmitra of clear argument,
Jinamitra of elevated conversation, Jinamitra of model
character and perspicacious intellect and Śīlabhadra
whose perfect excellence was buried in obscurity’¹
These scholars were not, however, content merely to
teach and expound ; they were authors of several
treatises, widely studied and highly valued by their
contemporaries. The above seven scholars flourished
in the first half of the 7th century ; the total number
of high class scholars produced at Nālandā during its
history of about 700 years must have been very
great. At the time of Yuan Chwang’s visit the
average scholarship of the establishment also was
very high. Out of its 5,000 (or 10,000) monks, there
were a thousand who could explain thirty collections
of Sūtras, and perhaps ten who could explain fifty.²
Rush for Admission from India and Abroad:
There was a great rush for admission to the Nālandā
University. Students from all parts of India and
also from distant foreign countries were anxious to
get the benefit of its instructions. Fa Hsien, Yuan
Chwang and I-tsing were not the only Chinese
scholars that were attracted to Nālandā by its fame

1. Watters, II p. 165,
2. Life, p. 112.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 119
as a centre of learning. During the short interval
of thirty years between the visits of Yuan Chwang
and I-tsing, Thon-mi, Hiuen Chiu, Taou-hi, Hwui-nieh,
Āryavarman, Buddhadharma, Taou-sing, Tang and
Hwui Lu, hailing from distant countries like China,
Korea, Tibet and Tokhara had visited Nālandā and
spent considerable time there in studying and copying
manuscripts.¹ The standard of admission was naturally
high; 'of those from abroad, who wished to enter
the schools of discussion, the majority, beaten by
the difficulties of the problems, withdrew; and those
who were deeply versed in old and modern learning
were admitted, only two or three out of ten
succeeding²'.
Library Facilities: The Nālandā authorities had
realised that a monastery without a library was like
a castle without an armoury. The University was
maintaining a splendid library to meet the needs of
the hundreds of teachers and thousands of students
that were engaged in the study of different sciences.
One of the reasons why Chinese scholars used to
spend months together at Nālandā was to get true
copies of the sacred texts and other works of
Buddhism. I-tsing got copied at Nālandā 400
Sanskrit works amounting to 5,00,000 verses.
Significantly enough the library quarter was known
as Dharma-gañja 'Mart of Religion.' It was located
in three splendid buildings appropriately called
Ratna-sāgara, Ratnodadhi and Ratnarañjaka.⁴
Lecturing Arrangement; Strength of Classes:
In the monk population of about 5,000 (perhaps 10,000)
1 Life, Introduction, pp. XXVII-XXXVI
2. Watters, II, p. 165
3. I-tsing, p. 1
4. Vidyabhushana, History of Indian Logic, p. 516

120 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
a thousand could explain, as we have seen already,
twenty collections, of Sūtras. This means that there
were about a thousand competent teachers to look
after the education of about 4,000, but in no case,
more than 9,000 monk students. On the average
therefore each teacher was in charge of about not
more than nine students. Personal attention was
thus possible to each student and the teaching
therefore must have been very efficient. The college
had eight big halls and 300 smaller apartments and
every day the authorities used to arrange for about
a hundred lectures. Learned monk teachers were
held in high veneration and were provided with sedan
chairs. They were experts in the art of teaching and
expounding; I-tsing gratefully observes, 'I have been
very glad that I have had an opportunity of aquiring
knowledge personally from them, which I should
otherwise have never possessed.'
Curriculum : The curriculum at Nālandā was
very comprehensive and catholic. The establishment
belonged to the Mahāyāna school of Buddhism, but
the works of the rival school, the Hīnayāna one, were
also taught. This necessitated a study of Pali
language, in which most of the Hīnayāna works were
composed. Works of the famous Mahāyāna scholars
like Nāgārjuna, Vasubandhu, Asaṅga and Dharmakīrti
must have been specially studied. But it is not to be
supposed that the curriculum of the University was a
sectarian one in the sense that it neglected Hindu
subjects. In the first place it must be noted that
subjects like grammar, logic and literature were
common to both the Hindus and the Buddhists.
Secondly, we have to remember that Bauddha and
Hindu religion and philosophy had become so
intricately interconnected with each other that to study

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 121
the one without the other had become practically
impossible not only for the ambitious controversialist
but also for the sincere lover of truth. Buddhists
themselves inform us that the three Vedas, Vedānta
and Sāṁkhya philosophy were taught at the
University along with ‘miscellaneous works’¹. The
latter expression probably included the study of
subjects like Dharmaśāstra (sacred law), Purāṇas,
astronomy, astrology etc., which were very important
for the lay Hindu and Buddhist students. The study
of medicine chikitsāśāstra) which is referred to in the
sacred canon, was also prosecuted at the place.
Administration: At the head of the general
administration was the abbot-principal, who used to
be assisted by two councils, one academic and the
other administrative. How these bodies used to function
has been already described in the last chapter. To
arrange for the free boarding and lodging of so vast a
number of students as 5,000 (or perhaps 10,000) was
a very costly affair ; the University was enabled to do
it because different kings had assigned the revenues
of a large number of villages for the upkeep of the
establishment. The number of these villages was 200
during I-tsing’s stay at the University (c. 675-685
A.D.). Sealings of a number of these villages,
obviously attached to letters sent by them to the
University administration, have been found in
excavations.
Later History ; A Foreign Endowment : Nālandā
continued to be a famous centre of learning
down to the 12th century A. D. An 8th century
inscription describes how it was then excelling all other
towns and cities on account of its scholars who were

1. Life, p. 112.
2. Mahāvagga, Chap. VI.

122 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch:
well-versed in sacred texts and philosophy.¹ In the
9th century the University continued to enjoy inter-
national reputation ; Balaputradeva, a king of Java
and Sumatra, being attracted by its fame, built a
monastery there and induced his friend and ally,
King Devapāla of Bengal, to grant five villages for its
upkeep.² Part of this endowment was reserved for
the purpose of copying books for the University
library (Dharmaratnasya lekhānārtham).
Work in Tibet : From the 8th century onwards,
the scholars at Nālandā began to play an active part
in the propagation of Buddhist religion and culture in
Tibet. Arrangements therefore must have been made
for teaching Tibetan at the institution. Chandra-
gomin, a Nālandā monk who flourished at the
beginning of the 8th century A.D., was the pioneer in
the field. Scores of his works were translated into
Tibetan ; many scholars were in fact engaged in
translation work. Sāntarakshita, another Nālandā
monk and scholar, was invited to Tibet by its king
Khri-sron-deu-tsan in 749 A.D. for the purpose of
preaching Buddhism. He was given a royal reception
and the first Buddhist monastery in Tibet was built
under his instructions. He became its chief abbot and
vigorously helped the spread of Buddhism till his
death in 762 A.D. He received very valuable coopera-

1. E. I., XX. p. 43.
2. E. I., XVII, p. 310, Cf. :—
   नालंदागुणवृन्दलुब्धमनसा भक्त्या च शौद्धोदनेः ।
   नानासद्गुणभिक्षुसंघवसतिस्तस्यां विहारः कृतः ॥
   .....................................................
   सुवर्णद्वीपाधिपमहाराजश्रीबलपुत्रदेवेन वयं विज्ञापिताः ।
   यथा मया श्रीनालंदायां विहारः कृतः ।................ ॥

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 123
tion in this work from Padmasambhava, a Kashmirian
monk educated at Nālandā¹. Intellectual and literary
activity of Nālandā must have continued in subsequent
centuries also, for several manuscripts have been
preserved to this time, which were copied at Nālandā
during the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries A.D.
Supersession by Vikramasila University : Tārā-
nāth informs us that the professors of Vikramaśīlā
were often appointed to watch over the affairs of
Nālandā by the Pāla rulers². From the 11th century
onwards the new University of Vikramaśīlā began to
receive a greater share of the royal patronage ; this
circumstance may have led to the decline of Nālandā
during the 11th and 12th centuries. Evidence from
the Tibetan sources shows that by this time Tantricism
had aquired a hold over the Buddhist mind and it
may have perhaps affected the progress of serious
studies. We have, however, no definite evidence on
the point.
The Destruction of the University : The ruin of
the establishment was brought about by the Muslim
invaders under Bakhtiyar Khilji towards the end of
the 12th century. The buildings were burnt or
destroyed and the whole of the monk population was
put to the sword. The priceless library of the
university was also wantonly committed to flames.
Thus perished this famous university at the hands of
fanatic invaders who did not know its value.
VALABHI³
A Famous Centre of Learning : Valabhi, situated

1. Bose, Indian Teachers of Buddhist Universities, pp. 116-81.
2. Ibid, p. 86.
3. See Altekar, A History of Important Towns and Cities in
   Gujarat and Kathiawar, pp. 89-40 for the history of this place.

124      EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA      [Ch.
near modern Wala in Kathiawar, was the capital of
an important kingdom and a port of international
trade with numerous warehouses full of rarest
merchandise. During the 7th century, however, it
was more famous as a seat of learning. I-tsing
informs us that its fame rivalled with that of
Nālandā in eastern India;¹ it is however a pity that
he should not have given us any details about its
literary and educational activity. There were about
a hundred Buddhist monasteries at the place in
c. 640 A.D.²; and they accommodated six thousand
monk-students. The famous Buddhist scholars,
Sthiramati and Guṇamati, were the leading scholars
of the University at the middle of the 7th
century A.D.³ Like Nālandā, Valabhi also was not
an exclusively Buddhist or monastic centre of learning.
Even Brahmanas from the distant Gangetic plain
used to send their sons to that place for higher
education⁴. Graduates at Valabhi used to be appointed
to posts in the executive line (I-tsing, p. 177); this
would have been impossible if secular subjects like
law, economics, accountancy and literature had not
been cultivated at the place. The University was
famous for its catholicity and intellectual freedom.

1. P. 177.
2. Watters, II p. 246.
3. A copper plate grant given in 580 A.D. to a monastery
   founded by Sthiramati has been found ; I.A., VI, p. 11.
4. अन्तर्वेद्यामभूत्पूर्वं वसुदत्त इहि द्विजः ।
   विष्णुदत्ताभिधानश्च पुत्रस्तस्योपपद्यत ॥
   स विष्णुदत्तो वयसा पूर्णषोडशवत्सरः ।
   गंतुं प्रवृत्ते विद्याप्राप्तये वलभीपुरम् ॥   K. S. S. Chap.
                        XXXII, 42-43.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 125
We are told that the scholars from all parts of India
used to assemble at Valabhi and stay there for at
least two or three years to discuss ‘possible and
impossible doctrines.’ They used to become famous
for their wisdom when they were assured of the
correctness of their opinions by the doctors at Valabhi.
The names of the famous scholars of the University
were written in white on its lofty gates. (Ibid.,
pp. 176-7).
Financial support: Valabhi was a rich city; it
had a hundred citizens ‘whose wealth amounted
to a million’. The University used to receive
considerable support from these merchant princes.
The Maitraka kings who were ruling there
during c. 480 to 775 A. D., were also great
patrons of learning; they used to give direct
grants for the purpose of meeting the general expenses
of the University as also for strengthening its library¹.
Scholars who completed their educational course at
the University used to receive either appointments
in government service or some financial help to enable
them to start their life². This continued to be the
case till c. 775 A. D. when the reigning dynasty
succumbed to an Arab attack, which resulted in the
destruction of the city and of the University.
VIKRAMŚĪLĀ³
An International University : Vikramaśilā monas-

1. सद्धर्मस्य पुस्तकोपचयार्थम् । I. A., VII., p. 67 ff.
2. I-tsing, p. 177.
3. Tibetan sources inform us that this monastery was
   situated in Bihar on a hill on the right bank of the Ganges. Mr. De's
   identification of Vikramasīlā with Patharaghata hill, 24 miles to the
   east of Bhagalpur, seems to be correct. The place is full of ancient
   and extensive ruins, and may yield a rich reward to the excavator.
   J. A. S. B., N. S., V, p. 7.

126 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
tery, founded by king Dharmapāla in the 8th century,
was a famous centre of international learning for more
than four centuries. King Dharmapāla (c. 775-
800 A. D.) was its founder; he built temples and
monasteries at the place and liberally endowed them.
He also erected several halls for the lecturing work.
His successors continued to patronise the University
down to the 13th century.¹ The monks of the
establishment were usually distinguished scholars and
the fame of the monastery soon spread beyond the
Himalayas. There was continuous intercourse going
on between Tibet and Vikramaśīlā for four centuries.
A special guest house was maintained for the use of
Tibetan scholars coming to learn at the feet of Indian
Pandits.² One cannot help admiring the continuous
tradition of high scholarship that was maintained at
Vikramaśīlā throughout its history. Tibetan sources
inform us that Buddha, Jñānapāda, Vairochana,
Rakshita, Jetārī Ratnākara-Śānti, Jñāna-śrī-mitra,
Ratnavajra, Abhayankaragupta, Tathāgata-rakshita
and a host of other Vikramaśīlā scholars wrote
numerous books in Sanskrit and translated scores
of them in Tibetan. The most distinguished in this
galaxy of Vikramaśīlā scholars was undoubtedly
Dīpaṅkara Śrī-Jñāna, more commonly known as
Upādhyāya Atīśa, who flourished in the 11th century
A.D. He went to Tibet at the invitation of its king
Chan Chūb and played an important part in the
reformation of the Buddhism of that country. As
many as 200 books, both original and in translation,
have been attributed to him by the Tibetan tradition.³

1. Bose, Indian Teachers, pp. 30 ff.
2. Das, Indian Pandits in the Land of Snow, p. 58.
3. Bose, Indian Teachers, pp. 32-105.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 127
Strength of the University : When there was
such a distinguished galaxy of scholars at Vikramaśīlā,
it is but natural that the numerical strength of the
establishment should have enormously increased by
the number of scholars attracted to the establishment.
In the 12th century there were 3,000 monk scholars
residing at the place.¹ The college possessed a rich
and extensive library, which excited admiration even
of its Muslim destroyers.
General Administration : The administrative
management of the Vikramaśīlā establishment was
entrusted by the Pāla rulers to a board of six monks
presided over by the chief abbot. Different members
of the board were assigned different administrative
duties like the ordination of the novices, supply and
supervision of servants, distribution of food and fuel,
assignment of monastic work, etc. Monk professors
led a simple life, the cost of maintaining one of them
being equal to the cost of supporting four ordinary
monks.²
Academic administration : Academic adminis-
tration was vested in a council of six dvārapaṇḍitas
presided over by the chief abbot. The function of the
Dvārapaṇḍita was to test the scholarship of those
seeking admission to the college. During the reign of
king Kanaka (?), the following were the Dvāra-
paṇḍitas of the establishment :—
Eastern Gate : Āchārya Ratnākara-śānti
Western „ : Vāgīśvara-kīrti of Benares
Northern „ : Naropa
Southern „ : Prajnākara-mati
First Central Gate : Ratna-vajra of Kashmir

1. Ibid, p. 84.
2. Ibid, p. 85.

128 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
Second Central Gate : Jñān-śrī-mitra of Gauda¹
Courses of Study and degrees : Grammar, logic,
metaphysics, Tantras and ritualism were the main
subjects specialised at the institution. The curriculum
was thus not so wide or catholic as that at Nālandā,
outlined above. Unfortunately we have no informa-
tion of the duration or the gradation of the course at
Vikramaśīlā, but there is every probability that it was
more systematically organised than was the case at
any other centre of ancient Indian education. For,
unlike at any other college, we find diplomas and titles
being given to the Vikramaśīlā students at the end
of their course by the reigning kings of Bengal.
Tibetan authorities inform us that Jetāri and
Ratnavajra had received degrees at the hands of kings
Mahīpāla and Kanaka respectively.² The memory
of the distinguished alumni of the place was kept ever
green in the mind of the congregation by their pictures
being put on the walls of the college halls This
honour is known to have been shown to Nāgārjuna
and Atīśa.
Destruction of the University : In 1203, the
Vikramaśīlā monastery was destroyed by the
Mahomadens under Bakhtyar Khilji, who seem to
have mistaken it for a fort. At that time Śākya-
śrī-bhadra was at the helm of the monastic affairs.
The account of the destruction of the monastery has
been preserved by the author of Tabākāt-i-nāsiri. We
read, ‘The greater number of the inhabitants of the
place were Brahmanas (i. e. Buddhist Bhikshus) and
the whole of these Brahmanas had their heads
shaven, and they were all slain. There were a great
number of books on the religion of the Hindus there,

1. Vidyabhushana, History of Indian Logic, p. 520.
2. Bose, Indian Teachers, p, 47, p. 61

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 129
and when all these books came under the observation
of the Mussalmans, they summoned a number of
Hindus that they might give them information
respecting the import of these books; but the whole
of the Hindus had been killed. On becoming
acquainted (with the contents of those books), it was
found that the whole fortress and city was a college'.¹
Śākya-śrī-bhadra and a few others, who escaped the
general slaughter, fled to Tibet. Such was the tragic
end of this famous college.
OTHER BUDDHIST CENTRES OF LEARNING
Other Monasteries as Centres of Learning :
From stray and casual references in the Life and
Travells of Yuan Chwang, we learn that (1) Jayendra
monastery near the capital of Kashmir, (2 & 3)
Chinapati and Jallandar monasteries in the Punjab,
(4) Matipur monastery in Bijnor district, U. P., (5)
Bhadra monastery near Kanauj, (6) a monastery in
Hiraṇya (?) country, and (7) and another at Amraoti
in Andhra country were notable centres of learning
in the 7th century.² At most of these monasteries
Yuan Chwang stayed for several months in order to
study Buddhist works and get their copies. Their
presiding abbots were distinguished authors, widely
known in the country. At the time of Yuan Chwang's
visit in the 7th century we must remember that
Buddhism was on the decline in the country, and yet
so many monasteries were flourishing centres of
Buddhist learning. Budhism continued to be strong in
Bihar and Bengal down to the 12th century A. D. and
we find monasteries in that province like those at
Odantapuri and Jagadalla Vihar (founded by king

1. Raverty's translation of Tabākāt-i-Nāsiri, Vol. I, p. 552;
   (1881).
2. See Life, pp. 69-70, 77, 81, 84, 127 and 137 respectively.
   9

130 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
Rāmapāla at his capital Rāmāvtī) were famous centres
of learning, spreading the holy knowledge both in India
and abroad. We would not be wrong if we assume
that during the days of Buddhist ascendancy, at least
ten per cent of the well-endowed monasteries were
respectable centres of learning and education, at least
of the status of modern degree colleges. The
contribution of Buddhism to the cause of learning
and education was thus very great.
HINDU TEMPLE COLLEGES.
Introduction : We have seen already how edu-
cational activity became a part of the daily monastic
life fairly early in the history of Buddhism. It is,
however, only from the 10th century that we get
evidence of Hindu temples becoming centres of higher
education. It is however quite possible that temples
began to undertake educational work much earlier,
though we have yet no evidence on the point. The
causes that led to this new development have been
indicated already at pp. 72-3.
SALOTGI TEMPLE COLLEGE.
A Famous and Free College : The village of
Salotgi in Bijapur District of the Bombay Presidency
was a famous centre, probably of Vedic learning, in the
10th and 11th centuries A. D. The Sanskrit college
that flourished at this place must have existed for a
long time, for it eventually transformed the original
name of the place, Pāviṭṭage, into Sālotgi, which is an
abbreviated and Prakritised compound of Śālā and
Pāviṭṭage. The college was located in a spacious
hall, attached to the temple of Trayī-Purusha, which
was built by Nārāyaṇa, a minister of the Rāshtrakūṭa
emperor Kṛishṇa III. Owing to its far spread fame for
efficiency, the college could attract students from

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 131
different parts of the country. The strength of the
college is not known, but it seems that 27 houses
were necessary for lodging the students. An
endowment of 12 Nivartanas (probably equal to 60
acres) of land was made for meeting the lighting
charges of the boarding houses.¹ The students were
offered free boarding, an endowment of 500
Nivartanas having been received for that purpose. It
would appear that at least 200 students were offered
free boarding, lodging and education at this institution.
The salary of the principal was provided for by
another endowment of 50 Nivartanas. The inscription
is silent about the salaries of the other teachers.
Public Support : The inhabitants of the village
were not slow to appreciate the benefits of the
institution; they had agreed to offer to the college a
donation of five rupees at every marriage, of two and
half rupees at every Upanayana and of a rupee and
quarter at every tonsure ceremony. Besides whenever

1. The relevant verses from the inscription are given below :—
   नारायणोऽभिधानेन नारायण इवापरः ।
   प्रधानः कृष्णराजस्य मन्त्री सन्सन्धिविग्रहे ॥
   तेनेयं कारिता शाला श्रीविशाला मनोरमा ।
   अत्र विद्यार्थिनः संति नानाजनपदोद्भवाः ।
   शालाविद्यार्थिसंघाय दत्तवान्भूमिमुत्तमाम् ।
   मान्यां निवर्तनानां तु पंचभिश्च शतैर्मिताम् ॥
   निवर्तनानि दीपार्थं मान्यानि द्वादशैव च ।
   पंच पुष्पाणि देयानि विवाहे सति तज्जनैः ।
   देयं तथोपनयने विवाहे यत्पुरोदितम् ॥
   केनचित्कारणेनेह कर्तव्ये विप्रभोजने ।
   भोजयेत्तु यथाशक्ति परिषदत्परिशज्जनम् ॥ EI V p. 60. I.,

132 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
a feast was given in the village, the host was expected
to invite as many teachers and students as possible.
A later inscription from the same place informs us that
when the college hall built by the minister of Kṛishṇa
III in 945 A. D. crumbled down in the next century,
it was rebuilt by a local magnate.
ENNĀYIRAM TEMPLE COLLEGE.¹
The Strength of the College; Subjects Taught :
At the beginning of the 11th century A. D. there
existed a famous and well organised college at
Ennāyiram in South Arcott district, which was an
educational institution of the modern type, with a
staff of sixteen teachers, engaged in teaching a pre-
determined curriculum. The local village community
had endowed the college with 300 acres of landed
property, thus enabling its authorities to offer free
tuition, boarding and lodging to 340 students. The
admission of students was governed by the principle
of the reservation of a fixed number of seats for
different subjects. Thus 75 seats were reserved for
the Ṛigveda and Black Yajurveda each, 40 seats for
the Sāmaveda, 20 for the White Yajurveda, 10 for
the Atharvaveda, Baudhāyana Dharmasūtra and
Vedānta each, 25 for grammar, 35 for Mīmānsā and
40 for Rūpāvatāra (?). The institution was thus
predominently a Vedic college.
Number of Teachers : For the Ṛigveda and Black
Yajurveda, there were three teachers each, for the
Mīmānsā two, and for the rest of the subjects one
each. There were 16 teachers for 340 students, and
so the average number of students per teacher was
about 22. Students therefore must have received

1. S. I. E. R. for 1918, p. 145, Inscription No. 333 for 1917

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 133
personal attention and instructions. Big classes like
those existing in modern colleges were unknown.
Maintenance Allowance to Students : The college
supplied free boarding to students, and we have
interesting information about the rations allowed per
head. Each Vedic student received about one seer
of rice per day and this quantity was sufficient for
the daily meals. He also received annually an
allowances of about one eighth tola of gold, which was
probably intended to cover the clothing expenses.
The allowance for the students of grammar and
philosophy was about 66 per cent higher; the reason
for this preferential treatment is not clear.
The Salaries of Teachers : The normal allowance
for the teachers of the college was about 16 seers of
rice every day. The cost of an ordinary meal was
about half a seer of rice ; an ordinary Sanskrit teacher
was thus getting as his salary about three times the
amount necessary for the food expenses of a family
of five. He was thus receiving a salary just sufficient
for his normal family responsibilities. He was neither
rolling in riches nor suffering from abject poverty.
Philosophy (Vedānta) was apparently regarded as a
difficult subject, for the salary of the teacher of the
subject was 25 percent higher.
TIRUMUKKUDAL TEMPLE COLLEGE.¹
General Organisation : During the 11th century,
Venkatesh Perumal Temple at Tirumukkudal in
Chingleput district was a very interesting institution,
for it was running a college, a hostel and a hospital.
The college was a smaller institution than the one

1. E. I., XXI, No. 220.

134 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.
at Ennāyiram, for arrangement was here made for
the free boarding and lodging of 60 students only.
Out of the 60 seats in the hostel, 10 were reserved
for the students of the Ṛigveda, 10 for those of the
Yajurveda, 20 for those of grammar, 10 for those of
the Pañcha-rātra system, 3 for those of Śaivāgama
and 7 for Vānaprasthas and Sanyāsins. All the
students in the hostel were provided with oil for bath
every Saturday.
Teachers’ Salaries : The teachers’ salaries in this
institution were lower than those in the Ennāyiram
college. Vedic teachers used to receive only about
three seers of rice every day ; their salary was thus
about one sixth the salary that was paid in the
Ennāyiram college. Vedic teachers of this institution
were apparently part-time teachers ; for their salary
is seen to be practically the same as the wages of the
servant appointed in the temple hospital for fetching
medicinal herbs and preparing medicines. The
grammar teacher was apparently a full time employee,
for he received about eight seers of rice every day.
His pay was thus half the pay of the teacher at
Ennāyiram. In ancient as in modern times, salaries
of teachers varied with the financial condition of
educational institutions.
TIRUVORRIYUR TEMPLE COLLEGE¹
A Grammar College in Memory of Panini :
During the 13th century there was a big grammar
college at Tiruvorriyur in Chingleput district. The
college was located in a big hall adjoining the local
Śiva temple. There was a tradition current in the
locality, that God Śiva had appeared in this very

1. S. I. E. R. for 1912, No. 201 of 1912