INDIAN RESEARCH INSTITUTE PUBLICATIONS 71
Indian Positive Sciences Series—No. 1

UPAVANA-VINODA

( A Sanskrit Treatise on Arbori-Horticulture )
INDIAN
RESEARCH
INSTITUTE
विद्यायामृतमश्नुते
CALCUTTA.
BY
GIRIJA PRASANNA MAJUMDAR, M. SC., B. L.
Professor of Botany, Presidency College, Calcutta.
Author of "Vanaspati", Griffith
Prize-holder, 1925, etc.
PUBLISHED BY
SATIS CHANDRA SEAL, M. A., B. L.
Hony. General Secretary,
THE INDIAN RESEARCH INSTITUTE
55, UPPER CHITPORE ROAD
CALCUTTA
1935
Inland Price Rs. 2/8 ] [Foreign Price Sh. 4/3

Printed by Jitendra Nath De at the SREEKRISHNA PRINTING WORKS
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CENTRAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL
LIBRARY, NEW DELHI.
Acc. No. 2993
Date.. 22. 6. 55.
Call No. Sa 5v/May.

FOREWORD
The Upavana-Vinoda, which forms but a small chapter of Śārṅga-
dhara's encyclopædic work, is an interesting Sanskrit treatise on
Arbori-Horticulture. This treatise represents only a branch of a much
larger science the name of which alone lingers in the main heading of
the chapter—Atha Vṛkṣāyurvedaḥ. If, as we are bound to assume,
the Upavana-Vinoda be only a branch of Vṛkṣāyurveda, it necessarily
follows that the researchers are yet to look out for other branches
of a larger body of knowledge comprehended under Vṛkṣāyurveda.
This is not however to claim that this Science reached its fullness
all at once. The data which may be gathered from the
available sources of information rather go to indicate that the
development of the knowledge of botany had proceeded on
different lines before it was possible to think of compiling a
Saṁhitā embodying the important results of observations and experi-
ments carried on through many centuries. The various departments
of Botany must have developed under such a common name as
Vṛkṣāyurveda. As Professor Girija Prasanna Majumdar has ably
shown in his informative little book, Vanaspati, Vṛkṣāyurveda became
prevalent as a distinct branch of Positive knowledge as early as the
Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya expressly referring to it. The contents of
Vṛkṣāyurveda as then known suggest a much smaller scope of know-
ledge than what turned out to be in its latest development in the
thirteenth century of the Christian era.
When I undertook my work on the Positive Sciences of the Ancient
Hindus, and Sir Prafulla Chandra Roy published his History of Hindu
Chemistry, our common purpose was to show that mere religion or
theology was not the pre-occupation of the Hindu mind. The Hindu
Ṛṣi of all ages was a votary of an all-round culture, and that accor-
dingly his interest and attention was not confined to any particular
aspect of life, or of reality. In order to appreciate and to do justice
to ancient Indian civilization it has to be viewed correctly and inter-
preted comprehensively in all its aspects and from all points of view.

[1] [ 2 ]
It is therefore, very gratifying to me to see that a right and
earnest endeavour has been made to found a Research Institute in
Calcutta with the noble mission of presenting and interpreting Indian
culture in its compresensive sense. This Institute which has already by
its recent publications and activities attracted attention of the public
and the scholarly world outside may be congratulated for opening its
Positive Sciences Series with the Upavana-Vinoda, critically edited by
Professor Majumdar with valuable introduction, an English trans-
lation and useful notes. Nothing could be a pleasanter beginning.
Mr. Majumdar who is a trained botanist and who commands a
wide acquaintance with the Indian texts bearing on the subject
of plants and the knowledge of plants, is a competent scholar
for undertaking a responsible task as this. It pleases me to
note that he has devoted many years of patient study to the history
of Indian Civilization in a plant-perspective. His Vanaspati and two
articles on Food and Dress published in the Indian Culture (nos. 2 & 3)
sufficiently indicate his wide range of information on the subject. The
text is well introduced by the editor with elucidation of each item,
glory of trees, selection of soil, classification of plants and the rest
with an additional information brought to light from the ancient texts,
inscriptions and foreign accounts. It may be hoped that this publi-
cation will be received as a welcome edition of a genuine Hindu
treatise on Arbori-Horticulture.
Calcutta
1st January, 1935 } Brajendra Nath Seal

PREFACE
The text and translation of the Upavana-Vinoda presented in the
following pages with introduction, critical notes and appendix containing
some additional texts bearing on the subject, is only a bye-product of a
systematic investigation undertaken by the author into the Indian knowledge
of Plants and Plant-life. The text of the Upavana-Vinoda is substantially
an extract from Peterson's edition of the Śārṅgadhara-Paddhati with variants
supplied from Dr. Gananath Sen's edition of the Upavana-Vinoda.
The Śārṅgadhara-Paddhati, as pointed out in the Introduction, is a
Sanskrit compilation of so late a date as the end of the thirteenth century of
the Christian era. But the Introduction, citing evidences from the text of all
ages, may sufficiently convince the reader that the science of Arbori-Horti-
culture had developed in India in an early age,—an age which is decidedly
earlier than the birth of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. If the beginnings
of all sciences and philosophies in Europe are traced in Greek Civilization,
the historian of Western developments in the Science of Botany and allied
subjects is not required to think of ancient countries other than Greece and
Rome. But if China has so far found reference in the history of such
developments and India has found no mention, it must be due to no other
reason than that the Indian aspect has not been properly studied as yet.
There is nothing to complain, nothing to be ashamed of. The plant perspec-
tive of Indian Civilization needs a very careful attention and patient study.
The texts furnished are to serve as samples of textual materials which
are now available.
The Indian Research Institute has done the author much honour by
starting its Indian Positive Science Series with this work, and Sir Brajendra
Nath Seal by writing the foreword. The author is much indebted to
Professor Pramathanath Sarkar of the City College for some valuable
assistance rendered by him in editing the text of the Upavana-Vinoda, and
his thanks are due no less to Mr. R. C. Adhikary, for his general assistance
in preparing this work for the press. It needs no further mention that the
author has availed himself of the helpful criticism and guidance of Dr. Barua
in the whole of the undertaking of which this work is only a part.
Presidency College
Calcutta. } GIRIJA PRASANNA MAJUMDAR
Nov. 1934, /

CONTENTS
Pages
INTRODUCTION ... ... 1— 33
THE TEXT ... ... 37— 65
THE TRANSLATION ... ... 69— 88
APPENDIX ... ... 91—113
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... ... 115—116
LIST OF PLANTS ... ... 117—128

TO
THE MEMORY OF MY WIFE
SUDHA DEVI, B. A.
the impress of whose love and affection the whole
undertaking indelibly bears

वृक्षायुर्वेदफलं मनोहरं शास्त्रतः सिद्धम् ।

UPAVANA-VINODA
INTRODUCTION
THE ŚĀRṄGADHARA-PADDHATI is an Anthology compiled by
Śārṅgadhara. It is an encyclopædic work dealing with a variety of
subjects, such as asceticism, erotics, rhetoric, medicine, politics, economics,
botany, chemistry, cosmetics, criticism in general, philosophy, science
of war, and so forth. It practically surveys the whole of human life in
its most superficial as well as its deepest aspects. Of this an interesting
chapter, Upavana-Vinoda, treating of Arbori-Horticulture, is translated
in these pages.
The author of this treatise was, as is clear from the introductory verses¹,
Śārṅgadhara, a courtier of king Hammīra of Śākambharī-deśa (modern
Bundelkhand) who flourished in the 13th century A. D. (1283-1301).
Hammīra was a powerful monarch, a great patron of learning and himself
a writer.² He was defeated and killed by Alauddin Khiliji, and had he not
been a contemporary of the latter he would perhaps have figured in history as
a conspicuously great monarch.³ It appears from the opening verses that
the author undertook to compile the treatise at the command of his king for
the benefit of his subjects.
The chapter Upavana-Vinoda from the Śārṅgadhara Paddhati, the English
translation of which is offered here, deals with the following topics :—
(1) Glory of Trees, (2) Good and evil omens relating to residence near trees,
(3) Selection of soil (for planting trees), (4) Classification of plants, (5)
Sowing of seeds, (6) The process of planting, (7) Watering of plants (after
planting), (8) The rules for the protection of plants, (9) Construction of a
garden house, (10) Examination of the soil where wells (for watering) are
to be dug, (11) Rules for the nourishment of plants, (12) Kuṇapa water
(recipe for a nutrient solution), (13) Treatment of plants in disease and
health, (14) Botanical marvels and (15) Ascertainment of the price of things.
1 पुरा शाकम्भरीदेशे श्रीमान्हम्मीर भूपतिः ।
चाह्वानान्वये जातः ख्यातः शौर्ये इवार्जुनः ॥२
2 Hammīra Mahākāvya of Naya Chandra Sur, Ind. Ant. VIII, pp. 55-73 (Text-ed.
(N. J. Kirtone, Bombay, 1879).
3 For further information see Dr. H. Roy's Dynastic history of Northern India, Vol. II.

2 UPAVANA VINODA
The treatment, as might be expected in an anthology, is rather inexhaustive.
The subject, however, was studied in India for centuries prior to the date of
the composition of the present treatise. The Science of Plant-life,
Vṛkṣāyurveda, was a distinctly comprehensive science, a branch of which
dealing with the construction and maintenance of gardens, is only referred
to here. It is pertinent to enquire, where is this Science—the Vṛkṣāyurveda ?
It must have been there at one time, but it is, like the Dhanurveda or the
Science of Archery and many other sciences, practically lost. A reconstruc-
tion at the present state of our knowledge is out of the question ; but we
have significant references scattered throughout Sanskrit literature, from which
it is possible to have a glimpse of it. We have elsewhere tried to show that
this science existed in ancient India, and the students of Medicine and Agricul-
ture, as now, had to study it as a necessary part of their programme.¹
The science of Arbori-Horticulture, the subject of our present study,
which is a comparatively new thing in the West being brought into vogue
towards the middle of the 19th century was an old thing in India. It played
an important part in public administration. Public parks and pleasure
gardens were provided by the Government (Arthaśāstra, Śukranīti and
Kāmandakinīti) for health, recreation and enjoyment of the public.
All decent houses (Vātsyāyana’s Kāmasūtra) and palaces of kings had
pleasure gardens attached to them. These were well laid out, kept in perfect
order, and placed in charge of well-trained experts (Ārāmādhipati). In
ancient dramas and epics and amatory poems, flowers and flower gardens
played important parts, and special class of artists, malakara and mālinī,
came into being enjoying protection of the State (Śukra. II. 83).
A clear idea of the contents of the chapter and their historical and
scientific importance may be formed from the conspectus given below :—
1. GLORY OF TREES
The custom of planting shady fruit trees along the public thoroughfares,
or constructing gardens and consecrating them for public use has been of
immemorial antiquity.² Like many a good thing in India it received a
religious sanction.
The glory of trees is proclaimed in some of the Purāṇas too, much after
the manner we find here in Śārṅgadhara’s treatise. Thus in the Matsya Purāṇa
we read : “One who sinks a well in a place where there is scarcity of water,
lives in heaven for as many years as there are drops of water in it. The effect
of digging ten such wells is equivalent to the digging of one pond, and the
1 Vanaspati-Majumdar, Calcutta, 1927.
2 Sāṅkhāyana—Gṛhyasūtra, V, 3, 2, et seq (R. V. III, 8, 11). S. B. E. 29, pp. 135—136.

SCIENCE OF ARBORI-HORTICULTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA 3
excavation of ten such ponds is equivalent to that of a lake, and the excavation
of ten such lakes has as much effect as that of begetting a virtuous son and
the birth of ten such sons has exactly the same effect as that of planting a
single tree."¹
In another chapter of the same Purāṇa, details of the rites and virtues of
planting trees are given : "One who plants even one tree, according to the
prescribed rites, resides in heaven for 30,000 years of Indra. The planter
of trees, according to the prescribed rites, liberates the same number of his
past and future manes, attains to the highest perfection and is never reborn
on earth".²
A similar eulogy on the practice is prescribed by the Agni Purāṇa : the
planting of trees and the construction of pleasure gardens (for the public) are
conducive to purgation of sin and enjoyment of prosperity.³
Varāha Purāṇa enjoins that "he never goes to hell who plants an Aswattha
or a Pichumanda, or a Banyan, or ten Jasmines, or two pomegranates, or
five mangoes (pañchāmras).⁴ A similar verse also occurs in Tithitattva where
instead of Banyan, Jasmines and Pomegranates we have Champaka, Keśara,
Tāla and Nārikela.
A more elaborate injunction describing the particular effects of planting
particular trees by the roadside is given in the Padma Purāṇa : "Plants are
like sons to a sonless man. Therefore, plant Aswattha trees with care, for it
does the work of a thousand good sons. The planting, further, of Aswattha
leades to prosperity ; of Aśoka, to destruction of all sorrow ; of Udumbara,
increases (the effect of ) sacrifices, of Nimba, to longevity ; of Jambaki,
residence in heaven ; of Dāḍima leads to the bliss of a good wife ; of
Dumura, to the cure of all diseases ; of Palāśa, to the protection of Brahmā ;
of Arka, to the eternal pleasure of the Solar Deity, of Bilva, to that of Śiva,
and of Pātali, to that of Pārvatī ; of Śiṁsapā, to that of the Apsarās
(female seraphim) ; of Kunda, to that of the Gandharvas ; of Bibhītaka, to
the increase of the number of servants, and of Vakula, gives maid servants.
The Tāla leads to the loss of one's all children, and the Nārikela gives
many wives, Drākṣā to all-round prosperity, Keli to physical pleasure, Ketakī
to ruin and Plakṣa leads to permanent fame." This list practically exhausts
the whole of human pleasures and pain. The same authority further
tells us that, "the man planting trees (by the wayside) will enjoy bliss in
1 Chap. 154, St. 511—512. }
2 Chap. 59, St. 17—20. } S. B. H. 17, parts i & ii, Allahabad.
3 Chap. 70, St. 1—9. Eng. translation—M. N. Dutta, 2 Vols. Calcutta, 1904.
4 गोकर्णमाहात्म्यनामाध्याय:—(for text see appendix) ; see also J. A. S. B. 39, Part 1, 3,
pp. 199—232.

4 UPAVANA VINODA
heaven for as many years as there are fruits and flowers and leaves in the
plant he plants¹".
Birdwood in this connection quotes an authority which says : "The
Brahmanas promise that he who plants one Aswattha, two Champakas, three
Nāgakeśaras, seven Tālas, twelve Nārikelas, and devotes them with their
shade, leaves, flowers, and fruits to public use, shall certainly inherit the
kingdom of Heaven."²
This is no mere irrational superstition. There is a plain reason behind the
practice prescribed. The Agnipurāṇa has the following explanatory verses :
"The man who plants trees bearing fruits and flowers for the enjoyment of the
public attains to a supreme state of bliss. The man who plants thirty trees
giving shade, fruits and flowers, and ten mango trees, is not destined to go to
hell. Gods, demons, angels, seraphs, and the whole of the flying fraternity,
beasts, and birds and men—all receive some sort of delight through trees.
The gods get pleasure through flowers, the manes through fruits, and men and
birds and beasts through shade. The man who plants trees giving fragrant
flowers and sweet fruits, is re-born, as a result, as a Brahmin in a respectable
family enjoying prestige and wealth in a prosperous country. So one should
plant such trees and look after them as if they were one's own children which,
in fact, religiously speaking they are. The mortal sons are meant for purely
selfish purposes whereas the 'tree-sons' serve purely altruistic ones. Leaves
and flowers and fruits and shades and roots and barks and wood (timber)
benefit others and bring salvation to our forefathers. One should worship
trees as one worships a sage free from the vice of envy, because it provides
with shade and fruits and flowers even to its very cutter. The all-giving
'tree-son', which does not bear a grudge even to its 'cutter-father' out of selfish
consideration, brings about the complete salvation to the planter. So the
Brahmin should always plant them with due ceremony and treat them
as his sons."³
The Varāha Purāṇa observes on the same point—"A man by planting
trees attains to the same bliss as he does by gift of cows and land. Just
as a pious son saves the family, just as good but difficult rules followed
with care save the performer from hell, so also do trees full of flowers
and fruits save the planter."⁴ In the same chapter Gokarṇa says—"That
(the tree) which is taken for fuel is called "agnihotra" (the sacrificial fire) ;
the tree by reason of shade and rest for travellers, the nest of birds, and
1 Chap. 26, Vṛkṣaropanam.
2 Indian Arts, Part 1, pp. 85—91.
3 Chap. on तड़ागवृक्षप्रशंसा ।
4 Chap. on Gokarṇamāhātmya.

SCIENCE OF ARBORI-HORTICULTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA 5
leaves, roots and barks, etc., for drugs of bodied beings is called a
“pañchayajña” (who observed the five sacrifices). It houses small animals
for whom it would have been difficult to build a house. It sheds leaves to
give alms, and this is how it ends its sacrifice (pañchayajña). It produces
fruit twice a year which all the year round are of service to their parents
(planter), and there are omens to be understood from the trees. Thus, O son,
are they (the trees) to be duly planted, and so the seers know.”
The Agni Purāṇa then very aptly concludes : “Therefore never cut
down any tree that bears good flowers and fruits, if you desire the increase
of your family, of your wealth, and of your future happiness. If a man
cuts down trees near temples, chaityas and graves, famine, epidemic and
drought follow. If one destroys Chiñcha trees, serious mischief to the monarch
is the consequence. If one destroys a boundary tree he dies with his
horses ; therefore, one should not cut down trees of the region haunted
by gods. The supremely wicked man who cuts down trees and thereby
stops the passage to wells, ponds and lakes gets his family degraded and
even his distant relatives despatched to hell. The man who cuts down
trees giving cool shade is tortured by the agents of Yama in the particularly
grim region of hell known as Asipatra-forests. The man who molests or
cuts down trees in the suburbs of a town goes to the fierce-looking region
of hell known as Jṛmbhaṇa. If a man cares after Bilva tree it is well and
good for him, otherwise danger is sure to follow. One should plant five
Bilva trees if he is not to miss heaven.”¹
Thus the general idea underlying the whole practice is one of public
utility religiously enjoined in order to make it universally understood,
appreciated and followed, so much so that even in the Edicts of Aśoka
this has been regarded as an act of Piety :
Rock Edict II—Provision of comforts for men and animals
“......On the roads both wells have been dug and trees planted for
the enjoyment of man and beast.”
Pillar Edict VII—Review of the king’s measures for the propagation
of the Law of Piety
(v) Thus said His Sacred and Gracious Majesty the King : On the
roads I have had banyan trees planted to give shade to man and beasts ;
I have had groves of mango trees planted ; at every half-Kōs I have had
wells dug ; rest houses have been erected ; and numerous watering places
have been provided by me here and there for the enjoyment of man
and beast.”²
1 Chapter on Varuṇārāmapratiṣṭhā. Cf. Varāhapurāṇa where it is said : धार्म्याश्चैव ये वृक्षा
न च्छेत्तव्याः कदाचन ।
2 Edicts of Aśoka, V. A. Smith, 1st Edition. pp. 7-8 & 33-34.

6 UPAVANA VINODA
And by the time of Manu destruction of plants came to be regarded
as State offence, and in his code provision was made for its punishment
(VIII, 285, 330 and 331 ; IX, 143, 145).¹
The Matsya Purāṇa prescribes degree of punishment proportionate
to the guilt; thus "one who fells his master's or other's trees should be
fined gold pieces; and double the fine should be imposed on those who
cut a tree near a tank, a thoroughfare, or a boundary line (91-92). Those
who break fruit trees, arbours, creepers and floral plants should be fined
one māsha of gold (93). Even a man chopping grass unnecessarily should
be made liable to pay a fine of kārṣāpaṇa (94). Out of the fine levied
for cutting trees the king should use his own discretion: he must pay
the owner of the trees the price for them and the rest should go to the
Royal Exchequer(95).²
Thus the plants are glorified because of their utility. They are either
sacred to some deity, or are shade-giving, or fruit-bearing, or bearing flowers
which one needed for worship.
II. GOOD AND EVIL OMENS RELATING TO RESIDENCE
NEAR TREES
Reference to the trees and plants which are to be avoided in gardens
adjoining a house, and to trees that are to be preferred, is plentiful in
ancient literature. Beginning with the earliest we find Gobhila enjoining in
Gṛhyasūtra :
"Let him (householder) avoid an Aswattha tree on the east side (of his
house), and a Plakṣa on the south side, Nyagrodha on the west side, and on
the north side an Udumbara". 22.
"One should say that an Aswattha brings (to the house) danger from fire,
one should say that a Plakṣa tree brings early death (to the inhabitants of the
house), that a Nyagrodha brings oppression through (hostile) arms, that an
Udumbara brings diseases to the eye". 23.
"The Aswatha is sacred to the Sun, the Plakṣa to Yama, the Nyagrodha
is the tree that belongs to Varuṇa, the Udumbara to Prajāpati". 24.
"He should place those (trees) in another place than their proper ones (25)
and should sacrifice to those same deities."³ 26.
1 Institutes of Manu, S. B. E. 25, pp. 304, et sq; & 459.
2 Chap. 227, sl. 91-95. S. B. H. 17 (ii), p. 245.
3 IV, 7; S. B. E. XXX, p. 122; for verse 24, cf. Padma P. Uttarākhaṇḍa where it is
said—
अश्वत्थरूपो भगवान विष्णुरेव न संशयः ।
रुद्रोरूपवटस्तद्वत्पलाशो ब्रह्मरूपधृक् ॥

SCIENCE OF ARBORI-HORTICULTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA 7
Varāhamihira says that "the presence of Plakṣa, Vaṭa, Udumbara and
Aśwattha trees respectively in the south, west, north and east of a house
forebodes evil, and if the same trees are present in order—Plakṣa being in the
north, Vaṭa in the east, Udumbara in the south, and Aśwattha in the west it
means good to the house." 83
"Presence of thorny trees like Khadira near a house means danger from
enemies, that of Kṣīra trees (trees with milky juice) loss of things, and that of
fruit trees, like mango, etc., indicates loss of children (prajākṣayakara). One
should not use even the wood of these trees as fuel". 84.
"If one does not want to part with these trees one should do well to plant
Punnāga, Aśoka, Ariṣṭa, Vakula, Panasa, Śamī and Sāla near them."¹ 85.
Bhaṭṭotpala in his commentary on the Bṛhatsaṁhitā quotes Garga who
enjoins that "one should avoid Aśwattha in the east, Plakṣa in the south,
Nyagrodha in the west and Udumbara in the north (of his house), for, it is
said that Aśwattha (in such position) engenders fear, Plakṣa defeat,
Nyagrodha illness of the king and Udumbara that of eyes. Vaṭa in front of
a house is best, so are the Udumbara, Aśwattha, and Plakṣa in the south,
west and north of the house respectively."
Varāhamihira in another place says, "let us first of all talk of trees that
should be planted in a garden, or in the house itself. Ariṣṭa, Aśoka, Punnāga,
Śirīṣa, Priyaṅgu, should be planted in the garden, or in the house as preemi-
nently conducive to the welfare of the house." Kaśyapa, another authority,
adds Champaka, Udumbara and Pārijātaka to the above list and says, that they
should be planted in *devālayé tathodyāné gṛhesūpāvanesu cha"*² 3. The
Agni Purāṇa prescribes that "a Plakṣa tree planted and grown on the north
of a building brings good luck to its master, whereas a Vaṭa tree on its east,
an Udumbara on its south and an Aśwattha on its west are possessed of
similar virtues. The garden should be laid on the lefthand side of a
dwelling house."³
To promote the hygienic effects of different trees and shrubs planted
around the dwelling of a man the Agnipuraṇa further enjoins that "Plakṣas
should be planted to the north of a dwelling house, the Vaṭas on the east,
mangoes on the south, Aśwattha on the west. Thorny shrubs should be so
planted as to edge the southern boundary of the ground of a house. The
flower garden should be laid out adjoining a dwelling house, and blooming
plants or sesame should be cultivated therein."
"Tanks should be excavated in the gardens, and arms of rivers should be
made to run in the same. Trees such as Ariṣṭa, Aśoka, Kadali, Punnāga, Śirīṣa,
1 Bṛhatsaṁhitā. Chap. 52. Vāstuvidyā, Vol. ii, pp. 643-705.
2 Chap. 54, Vṛkṣhāyurveda, Vol. II, p. 743 (Sanskrit original).
3 Chap. 246, English translation, pp. 889-893.

8 UPAVANA VINODA
Jambu, Vakula and Dāḍima or any other (useful) trees should be carefully
planted in a garden.¹”
The Matsyapurāṇa has a similar but a more elaborate prescription, thus :
“A banyan tree to the east of a house is auspicious, and all desires are fulfilled ;
a fig tree to the south, a pipal tree on the west and a plakṣa to the north of
it brings fortune to the owner. If kaṇṭaki' (thorny) trees, milky trees, Asana
trees and the straight trees be planted in the house in the above mentioned
direction respectively, then it means misery to the lady of the house and her
children. If one does not cut down such a growth he should plant auspicious
trees near them. A house with the following trees in its vicinity is very
auspicious, viz., Punnāga, Aśoka, Vakula, Śamī, Tilaka, Champaka, Dāḍima,
Pippali, Drākshā and a kusumamaṇḍapa (bower). The following trees
bring prosperity and increase riches, viz., Jambīra, Pūga, Mallikā, Nārikela,
Kadali and Pātali²” 20-24.
The Brahmavaivartta Purāṇa is more exhaustive in this respect. Thus
it says “that the cocoanut tree near the dwelling house confers wealth on the
family, and if on the east, or north-east of an encampment, the tree is the
donor of sons ; the mango tree, the best of the trees, is auspicious at every
place, and if situated in the east gives wealth to man. The Bilva, the Panasa,
the Jambīra and the Vadari trees are, in all situations, conducive to prosperity,
but, if in the east they give sons and, on the south, confer wealth on the
owner. The Jambuka, Dāḍima, Kadali, and Āmrātaka grown in all situa-
tions enrich the house-holder, but if grown in the east they bring friends
(bandhu), and if in the south, intimate associates (mitra). They are always
conductive to good, wealth and plenty of children. Betelnut, if planted in
the south or in the west, leads to pleasure, and if in the north-east, comfort ;
wherever planted they bring prosperity. Champakas too, wherever planted,
bring in their train purity and welfare. Alābu, Kuṣmāṇḍa, Māyāmba,
Sukāsaka, Kharjjura, Karkati if planted in an encampment the result is great
good. Vāstuka, Karabilva, Vārtāku, Vallīphala, all these wherever planted
yield beneficient results.”
Then it gives the names of trees the planting of which should by all
means be avoided. “Wild trees should not be planted either in encapments
or in cities. Vata should not be planted in an encampment because it leads
to danger from thieves, but it is good for cities because its very look
confers virtue (on the lookers). The planting of Tintiḍī trees should be
avoided with all care ; the very remembrance of it is perilous to wealth and
dangerous to the life of the citizens ; they are to be totally prohibited in camp
1 Chap. 282, English translation, pp. 1037-1038.
2 Chap. 255, S. B. H. 17, ii, p. 298.

SCIENCE OF ARBORI-HORTICULTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA 9
and partly in cities ; they are, however, not to be prohibited in villages and
spacious towns. The wise persons should avoid by all means the air
coming from them. Kharjjūra and Uhu trees are forbidden in camps, but
certainly not in villages and spacious towns. Trees like Champaka and rice
plants are equally beneficient in villages, cities and in camps. Sugarcane,
Aśoka, Śirīṣa, Kadamba are always productive of good. So also are Kacvī',
Haridrā, Ārdraka and Harītakī, both in villages and in towns. The air
coming from the Āmalakī tree is not always beneficient’.¹
Śukrāchāryya in his Śukranī'ti is more practical on the subject. His general
instruction on the point is : “one should lay out a fair garden to the left
of the dwelling house (IV. iv, 104). He should plant those trees which bear
good fruits (phalinah) very near the village (IV. iv, 103).” Then he gives
a long list of such phalinah trees in IV. iv, 95—102. His other general
instructions are to plant thorny trees (kanṭakinah) in forests (113-114), and
expansive trees, shrubs and creepers “in villages if domestic, and in forests, if
wild”² (123-124).
In this, as well as in the sections that follow, we find that in the treatment
of plants from every aspect utility is distinctly kept in view.
III. SELECTION OF SOILS
A more elaborate attention is paid to the topic of classification of soils
with characteristic flora in Charaka³ and Suśruta⁴.
Charaka divides land into three classes, namely, Jāṅgala, Anūpa and
Sādhāraṇa according to the nature of the soil (edaphic conditions) and
climate (climatic conditons). Thus :

1. Jāṅgala Region (literally dry places—plants xerophytes)—“The region
   called Jāṅgala is full of unobstructed open spaces, where a steady and
   dry wind blows, pervaded with expansive mirages, rivers and rivulets scarce,
   abounding in (artificial) wells (i.e. scarcity of water), also abounding in dry
   and rough sands and big sandy particles (kankurs). 6 & 7.
   Suśruta describes this region as “the country which presents a flat surface,
   and whose dull monotony is enlivened here and there by scanty growths of
   thorny shrubs, and tops of a few isolated hills and knolls, and in which the
   waters from springs and wells, accumulated during the rains, become nearly
   1 Chap. 102, Śrīkrishna Janma khaṇḍa.
   2 S. B. H. 13, pp. 165-166.
   3 Kalpasthāna I, Madanaphala Kalpa, 6, 7—9 ; Eng. translation, Fasc. LXI, Lesson I, pp. 1917—1918.
   4 Sūtrasthāna, Chap. 35, 34—42. Eng. translation by K. L. Vishagratna, Vol. II, pp. 325—326 (Calcutta, 1911).
   2

10 UPAVANA VINODA
drained and strong gales of warm wind blow (during the greater part of the
year)'' 35.
Charaka gives, by way of illustration, the following list of plants character-
istic of this region : Khadira, Asana, Aśvakarṇa, Dhava, Tiniṣa, Sallaki, Sāla,
Somavalka, Vadari, Tinduka, Aswattha, Vata and Āmalakî, the predominant
types being Śami, Arjuna, and Śiṁśapā.'' 6 & 7.
2. Anūpa Region (literally marshy, or swampy and watery—plants littoral,
or inland)—''Mostly abounding in rivers and bordered by seas, swept by
cold wind, i. e., charged with abundant moisture. The country is interspersed
with rivers, banks of which are decked with—Vañjula and Vānīra. Mountains
are absent from this region. The region is thickly over-grown with forests
bowers, and trees in flowers encircled by verdant trees and tender creepers
(inland). The land is covered with dense forests of Hintāla, Tamāla, Nārikela
and Kadalī.'' 8.
Suśruta describes this region as the country ''that contains a large number
of pools, and is wooded and undulated with chains of lofty hills traversing
its area, and which is impassable owing to its network of rivers and sheets
of accumulated rain-water rippling before the currents of the gentle humid
air.'' 34.
Varāhamihira mentions the following trees as growing in this region :
Jambu, Vetasa, Vānīra, Kadamba, Udumbara, Arjuna, Vījapūraka, Drākṣā,
Lakoocha, Dāḍima, Vañjula, Naktamāla, Tilaka, Panasa, Timira and Āmrātaka
—these 16 kinds of trees are the predominant species of this region.''¹
Amarkoṣa mentions the following plants as growing exclusively in water :
Saugandhika, Kalhāra, Hallaka, Rakta-Sandhyaka, Utpala, Kubalaya, Indīvara,
Kumuda, Padma, Kamala, Puṇḍarīka, Sitāmbhoja, Kokanada, Raktotpala,
Vāriparṇī, Muṣākarṇī, Jalanīlī, and Śaivāla.²
3. Sādhāraṇa Region (literally the ordinary—plants mesophytes)—
Charaka says that ''the region which is endued with creepers, and plants
and trees of both the classes, i.e., the Vanaspatis and Vānaspatyas, is called
Sādhāraṇa.'' 9.
According to Suśruta ''a country which exhibited features common to both
the aforesaid classes is called Sādhāraṇa or the Ordinary'' 36.
As to the amount of rain-fall in these regions Kautilya in his Arthaśāstra
mentions that 16 droṇas of rain-fall in the country of Jāṅgala (dry places),
half as much more in Anūpa (moist) countries ; as to the countries which are
fit for agriculture (desavāpanam)—13½ droṇas in the country of Aśmakas
(Mahārāṣṭra) ; 23 in Avanti ; an immense quantity in Aparāntānam
1 Bṛhatsaṁhitā, Chap. 54, 10—11, Vol. II, p. 745 (Text).
2 Pātāla Varga 50-56 ; cf Colebrook's edition (1807), BK. I, Chap. 2, Sec. 3. 36-42.

SCIENCE OF ARBORI-HORTICULTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA 11
(Koṅkaṇa), and the foot of the Himalayas. The author finally directs that
"Lands that are beaten by foam (phenāghātaḥ, i.e., banks of rivers, etc.) are
suitable for growing valli'phala (pumpkin, gourd and the like); lands that are
frequently overflown by water (parivahanta) for long pepper, grapes (mṛdvīkā)
and sugarcane; the vicinity of wells for vegetables and roots, low grounds
(hariṇīparyantaḥ—moist bed of lakes) for green crops; and marginal furrows
between any two rows of crops are suitable for the plantation of fragrant
plants, medicinal herbs, cascus roots (uśīnāra), hira(?) beraka (?) and piṇḍāluka
(lac) and the like”.¹
Our survey in this section distinctly shows that classification of soil was
based on two grounds—medicinal and economic. The medical authorities,
like Charaka and Suśruta, had in view the efficacy of vegetable drugs which
depends on the nature of soil in which they grow. And politicians like
Chānakya cared for the productivity of different types of soil, an attention to
which is necessary on the part of a good Government to prevent famine.
IV. CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS, AND MEANS OF PROPAGATION²
A. CLASSIFICATION
A broad classification of plants, probably based on habits, into trees,
shrubs, herbs and creepers, is to be found as early as in the texts of the
Ṛgveda (X. 97. 15). Charaka classifies plants into 4 orders, namely,
Vanaspatis, Vānaspatyas (Vṛkṣas of Suśruta), Oṣadhis and Virudhs.
Vanaspatis are trees that bear fruits without flowers; Vānaspatyas are trees
that bear first flowers and then fruits; Oṣadhis are those herbs that wither
after fructification, and Virudhs are herbs with spreading stems, e.g. creepers
and gulmas ( लतागुल्मादिः ).³ Chakrapāṇi in his commentary on Charaka notes
that Virudhs comprise two classes (1) Latās—creepers, and (2) Gulmas—herbs
with succulent or cactaceous stems and shrubs, The Oshadhīs are subdivided
into (1) annuals or perennials, bearing fruits, and (2) plants that wither away
after maturing and without fructification, like the Durvā (grasses).
The commentator Dalvana gives us some details: The Plakṣa and the
Udumbara are given as instances of Vanaspatis; the mango, the Jambu, etc.,
of Vṛkṣas. The Virudhs are of two classes (1) creepers with stems spreading
on the ground ( प्रतानवत्यः ), and (2) herbs with succulent stems ( गुल्मिन्यः or
स्तम्बिन्यः वर्त्तुललतासन्ततिविशिष्टाः ).
The Oṣadhis are divided into two classes: (1) those that wither away
after fructification, e.g., wheat, barley, linseed, pulses, etc., (फलपाकनिष्ठा गोधूमादयः),
1 Chap. XXIV, 116-117, (Shyama Sastri Ed. (1915), pp. 143-145).
2 See Vanaspati, Sec. VII, for elaborate dealing of the subject, pp. 79-127.
3 Sūtrasthāna, I. 36, 37; (cf. Suśruta-Sūtrasthāna, I. 23),

12 UPAVANA VINODA
and (2) those that wither after maturity and bear neither flowers nor fruits
e.g., mushrooms.¹
Manu's division² of plants is more systematic than the above. According
to him :
(1) Those that bear abundant flowers and fruits and wither after
fructification are called Oṣadhīs, e. g. rice and wheat.
(2) Those that bear fruits without evident flowers are called Vanaspatis
e. g. Vaṭa, Plakṣa, etc.
(3) Both those which produce flowers only and those which produce
fruits only may be classed as Vṛkṣa.
(4) Bushy herbs of various types may be classed as Guccha, e. g.
Mallikā (Jasminum), and the like.
(5) Succulent shrubs of various types are known as Gulmas.
(6) Grasses of different kinds are called Tṛṇas.
(7) Creepers with stems spreading on the ground (procumbent and
document) are called Pratānas.
(8) Lastly, there are those which twine round or climb a tree or a
support, called Vallis.
Amara's classification is full of details showing a further advance in
knowledge :
(1) The trees (the flowering Vṛkṣas and the flowerless Vanaspatis)
are fruit-bearing and possess woody stem ( काष्ठदारु ), trunks ( प्रकाण्ड-प्रकाण्डः
स्कन्धः स्यान्मूलाच्छाखाविस्तरः ) ;
(2) Arboraceous plants and shrubs ( क्षुपः, ह्रस्वशाखाशिफः ) bearing flowers
as well as fruits.
(3) The Latās are flowering plants with herbaceous stems, some of them
creeping on the ground ( प्रतानिनी ), others succulent ( गुल्मिनी ), others twining
or voluble ( मूलाच्छाखां गता लता—cf. Suśruta—लताप्रतानवत्यः गृष्टिमन्त्यः ).
(4) The Oṣadhis (in the narrower sense) are herbaceous plants bearing
fruits with or without flowers, and dying or withering away after fructification.
Kandaśāka (tubers, rhizomes, corms) are included in this ; e.g., Palāṇḍu (the
onion पलाण्डुस्तु सुकन्दकः ), the Lasuna (garlic, महाकन्दः ) ; etc. But the chief
instances are from the grass family ( धान्यं व्रीहि स्तम्बकरी । स्तम्बो गुच्छस्तृणादीनाम् ।
तृणधान्यानि नीवाराः, etc.).
(5) The Tṛṇas, grasses, of which the characteristic is the formation of
gulmas (culms of grasses with annular knots from which leaves spring
—स्तम्बो गुच्छं तृणादीनामषण्डद्रुमगुच्छयोः ).
The bamboo is considered as a sort of giant grass ( तृणध्वजः ). The reeds
are also placed among the grass ( नलादयस्तृणं गर्मुच्छाशाकप्रसुखमपिप्रसुखमग्रन्थात् नीवाराद्याः ).
1 Positive Science, Dr. Seal, p. 170.
2 Manu Saṃhitā, I. 46-48.